Abstract
We live in a globalised world characterised by extraordinary levels of interconnection and interdependence, as well as a world characterised by high unpredictability caused by swift and disruptive changes everywhere. This state of affairs is undoubtedly testing the limits of human capacity in co** with such critical policy issues as growing inequality, climate change, ageing populations, jobless economic growth, migration, artificial intelligence , Big Data and metadata, and the “Internet of things”. These complex issues—profoundly different from those of the twentieth century—place an unprecedented level of demands on the capacity of governments and public governance systems in co** with them. Furthermore, the complexity of these policy issues—accentuated by global interdependence and interconnectedness, as well as by the pace of technological and scientific advances—has created new realities that present serious challenges, which also require regional and/or global solutions. They can be tackled effectively only through concerted efforts, for example, through the establishment of regional and global cooperation and international partnerships forged for the purpose. In 2015, the international community agreed on the global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs ) to be accomplished in the next 15 years. This highly ambitious “2030 Agenda” sets out 17 goals, 169 targets and 231 indicators covering every aspect of development. It presents a radical new approach, focusing on the integrated pillars of sustainable development: economic, social and environmental. The Agenda is universal, and it includes such issues as reducing inequality, encouraging peace and security, enhancing democratic governance, tackling corruption , promoting participation and access to information, as well as enhancing other human rights and institutional capacity, which were not part of the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) framework (UN, “A renewed global partnership for development”, Report of the UN System Task Team on the Post-2015 UN Development Agenda. New York: United Nations, 2013). In this context, the role of international cooperation and partnerships becomes an imperative prerequisite for accomplishing the goals of the “2030 Agenda”, confirming the view that international cooperation and partnerships are catalytic in co** with complex transnational issues. This chapter discusses briefly the notions of cooperation and partnerships . Then, it presents the existing and evolving institutional frameworks within which international cooperation and partnerships are formed. The chapter concludes by presenting practical connotations of regional and global cooperation and partnership models. These have been established by countries to share their knowledge and experience in addressing such critical policy issues and challenges.
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Notes
- 1.
The most established definition of cooperation in academic literature is the one by Robert Keohane (1984: 51). He assumes that cooperation occurs “… when actors adjust their behaviour to the actual or anticipated preferences of others, through a process of policy coordination”. Keohane assumes a conflictive policy situation at the outset of each cooperative agreement. Policy adjustments are then negotiated to bring agreements more in line with each actor’s preferences. Once both policies become more compatible, the act of cooperation is completed.
- 2.
Examples of international organisations include the United Nations , the World Bank and the OECD ; examples of regional organisations are the Asian Development Bank, the Corporacion Andina de Fomento (CAF), the Development Bank of Latin America, among others.
- 3.
This form of cooperation is also referred as “multi-bilateral”, when it involves two cooperating countries and a third country or an international organisation that finances the cooperation .
- 4.
The “South-South” scheme represents a close manifestation of this cooperation modality.
- 5.
In which, at least one part is a developed country and the other(s) are develo** nations, or one with a lesser degree of development.
- 6.
For example, universities, private foundations, business associations and NGOs.
- 7.
For example, cooperation , at the academic level, between private and public universities around the world through exchange visits, joint research and scholarships.
- 8.
According to Brinkerhoff (2002), equality of decision-making and mutual influence are the key characteristics distinguishing partnership from other types of relationship. Yet, in practice, develo** a relationship characterised by a free and equal exchange of ideas is challenging because of language diversity, geographical constraints and differences in terms of how the relationship “partnership” is conceptualised and interpreted.
- 9.
Partnerships can be established with or without formal contractual agreements. Partners can be small community-based organisations or large national or international institutions. For example, a humanitarian partnership is one in which two or more bodies agree to combine their resources to provide essential goods and services to disaster survivors.
- 10.
Typically, an “authentic” partnership is associated with the following characteristics: long-term, shared responsibility, reciprocal obligation, equality, mutuality and balance of power (Fowler 2000). Core principles of reciprocity, accountability , joint decision-making, respect, trust, transparency , sustainability and mutual trust have also been highlighted in the literature (Wanni et al. 2010; Dochas 2010; Crawford 2003).
- 11.
During the 1960s and 1970s, poverty was understood in terms of the non-existence of development. Thus, modernisation theories highlighted the goal of achieving a Western-style package of development, complete with urbanisation, industrialisation and market economic progress (Giddens 1991). Partnership approaches informed by modernist paradigms emphasise its role in ensuring aid effectiveness and efficiency, the reduction of corruption , and the provision of assistance rather than mutual benefits and reciprocity (Crewe and Harrison 1998).
- 12.
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are the eight international developments goals that all 192 United Nations Member States and at least 23 international organisations—agreed in September 2000 at the UN Millennium Summit—to achieve by the year 2015. They included (1) eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, (2) achieving universal primary education, (3) promoting gender equality and empowering women, (4) reducing child mortality rates, (5) improving maternal health, (6) combatting disease epidemics such as HIV/AIDS and malaria, (7) ensuring environmental sustainability and (8) develo** a global partnership for development.
- 13.
- 14.
Ibid.
- 15.
- 16.
These systems are designed to realise consistency in partners’ engagement in strategic planning and provide them with a basis to hold the organisation to account. For this reason, toolkits and resources have been developed for better working in a partnership. See for example the: “UNDP Toolkit for Strengthening Partnerships” (UNDP 2016), or the “EU Partnership Development Toolkit” (EU 2005).
- 17.
Conversely, the MDG 8 has often been criticised for perpetuating a “donor-recipient” country relation rather than a true partnership between countries. The fact that it was the only goal that assigned responsibility to developed nations and focused on aid had exacerbated this situation somewhat (United Nations 2015b, c).
- 18.
For example, the First High-Level Meeting (Mexico City 2014) made use of the results from the first monitoring round to guide discussions. Likewise, the Second High-Level Meeting of the Global Partnership (Nairobi 2016) used the findings from this report to underpin inclusive dialogue on the individual and collective action that is still needed to enhance development impact and yield sustainable results on the ground (http://effectivecooperation.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/OutcomeDocumentEnglish.pdf).
- 19.
In this context, targets can be met within the framework of a revitalised Global Partnership for Sustainable Development supported by the concrete policies and actions outlined in the outcome document of the Addis Ababa Action Agenda (2015).
- 20.
For example, the solutions exchange platform “SSMart” for sustainable development.
- 21.
Several benefits are derived through the South-South Global Thinkers’ community: (1) a forward-looking research agenda is defined and shaped; (2) collaborative research involving thought leaders of various communities is conducted and promoted; (3) it is a forum for global and regional policy dialogues and exchange of ideas and information for research and policy formulation; and (4) it is a source of unparalleled content, cutting-edge research and learning resources for all, beyond its members and pools of expertise.
- 22.
- 23.
- 24.
- 25.
The Country Dialogues on Using and Strengthening Local Systems were launched during the High-Level Meeting of the Global Partnership for Effective Development Co-operation (OECD /UNDP 2014). The Country Dialogues provide a space for development partners to discuss challenges and risks in particular countries and promote better coordination amongst donors and partners. Under the championship of United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the Collaborative Africa Budget Reform Initiative (CABRI), the EIP piloted this approach in Senegal and Bangladesh, as volunteer partner countries, in 2015.
- 26.
In this respect, see also the “i-Challenge” initiative that crowdsourced ideas for indicators that could be used to measure the strength of public management systems like procurement, tax, public financial management and public administration and civil service , during the development of indicators for eventually measuring the SDG implementation progress. The “i-Challenge” initiative closed on 1 July 2014 and received 92 ideas for indicators from 42 different sources in 26 countries. An evaluation committee selected three finalists from the ideas received, which were featured at a workshop on 30 October 2014 held at the OECD premises in Paris.
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Baimenov, A., Liverakos, P. (2019). Cooperation and Partnerships for International Development in the Era of the SDGs. In: Baimenov, A., Liverakos, P. (eds) Public Service Excellence in the 21st Century. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3215-9_10
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