SpringerLink
Log in

Moving from Rural to Urban: Urbanization and Its Implications for Educational Equality and Equity in China

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Metropolitan Governance in Asia and the Pacific Rim

Abstract

Rapid urban growth in China threatens sustainable development because policies and infrastructure have not developed to ensure that the promised benefits of city life are shared equitably. In this vein, educational equality and equity in China are unavoidably influenced by urbanization and the broader pro-urban and pro-costal development model. This chapter places the debate on educational equality and equity within the context of rapid urbanization in China. The consequences of urbanization, such as rapid urban expansion and marginalization, together with the effects of the rural–urban dichotomy, have challenged equal and equitable educational opportunities and attainment. Through the lenses of educational investment, quality school enrolment, the examination system, and private tutoring in education, the chapter identifies and discusses multiple educational disparities. Amid rapid urbanization and demographic mobility, the lack of inclusive urban communities and quality schools are fundamental reasons for China’s educational disparities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 109.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Blau, P. M., & Duncan, O. D. (1967). The American occupational structure. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu, P. (1973). Cultural reproduction and social reproduction. In R. Brown (Ed.), Knowledge, education and cultural change (pp. 7–112). London: Tavistock.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). New York: Greenwood.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J. (1977). Reproduction in education, society and culture. Beverly Hills: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bray, M. (1999). The shadow education system: Private tutoring and its implications or planners. Fundamentals of Educational Planning No. 6. Paris: UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bray, M., & Lykins, C. R. (2012). Shadow education: private supplementary tutoring and its implications for policy makers in Asia. Mandaluyong City, Metro Manila, Philippines: Asian Development Bank.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner, M. (1973). Equality and equity. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 409(1), 9–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Causa, O., & Johansson, A. A. (2011). Intergenerational social mobility in OECD countries. OECD Journal: Economic Studies, 2010(1), 1–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deloitte. (2014). Report on the diversification of China’s education industry 2014. China Research and Insight Center. Deloitte China. https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/cn/Documents/technology-media-telecommunications/deloitte-cn-tmt-deloitte2014educationindustryreport-en-220514.pdf. Accessed December 10, 2017.

  • Dixon-Roman, E., & Gordon, W. E. (Eds.). (2012). Thinking comprehensively about education: Spaces of educative possibility and their implications for public policy. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fend, H. (1974). Gesellschaftliche Bedingungen Schulischer Sozialisation. Weinheim: Beltz.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fry, G. W. (1983). Empirical indicators of educational equity and equality: A Thai case study. Social Indicators Research, 12(2), 199–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gao, H. (2014, September 4). China’s education gap. New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/05/opinion/sunday/chinas-education-gap.html?_r=0. Accessed December 10, 2017.

  • GeoCity. (2013). Singularities of urban systems in China and India. Swerts Geo Driver City. http://geodivercity.parisgeo.cnrs.fr/blog/2013/07/singularities-of-urban-systems-in-china-and-india/. Accessed December 10, 2017.

  • Gongloff, M. (2014, October 8). China’s economy just overtook the U.S. in one key measure. The Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/10/08/china-gdp-tops-us_n_5951374.html. Accessed December 10, 2017.

  • Hall, A. L., & Midgley, J. (2004). Social policy for development. New York: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hannum, E. (1999). Political change and the urban-rural gap in basic education in China, 1949–1990. Comparative Education Review, 43, 193–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hao, L., & Woo, H. S. (2012). Distinct trajectories in the transition to adulthood: Are children of immigrants advantaged? Child Development, 83(5), 1623–1639.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haveman, R., & Wolfe, B. (1995). The determinants of children’s attainments: A review of methods and findings. Journal of Economic Literature, 33, 1829–1878.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ishida, H. (2001). Industrialization, class structure, and social mobility in postwar Japan. British Journal of Sociology, 52, 579–604.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaifeng. (2014, August 23). Down and out in rural China. The Economist. http://www.economist.com/news/china/21613293-many-teenagers-chinese-countryside-do-not-finish-secondary-school-bodes-ill. Accessed December 10, 2017.

  • Labaree, D. (1997). Public goods, private goods: The American struggle over educational goals. American Educational Research Journal, 34(1), 39–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lareau, A. (1987). Social class differences in family-school relationships: The importance of cultural capital. Sociology of Education, 60(2), 73–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J. (2012). The student experience in china’s revolutionary move to mass higher education: Institutional challenges and policy implications. High Education Policy, 25(4), 453–475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, B., & Piachaud, D. (2004). Poverty and inequality and social policy in China. CASE Paper 87, Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion, London School of Economics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lia, P. (2003). The psychological impact and response to poverty and inequality. China Social Class Structure. http://www.china.org.cn/chinese/null/314698.htm. Accessed December 10, 2017.

  • Lipset, S. M., & Zetterberg, L. H. (1959). Social mobility in industrial societies. In M. S. Lipset & R. Bendix (Eds.), Social mobility in industrial society. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lu, X. (2002). A report on contemporary Chinese social classes (dangdai zhongguo shehui jieceng yanjiu baogao). Social Science Literature Press (Shehui Kexue Wenxian Chubanshe).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lu, Y., & Zhou, H. (2013). Academic achievement and loneliness of migrant children in China: School segregation and segmented assimilation. Comparative Education Review, 57(1), 85–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mackenzie, K. (2012, August 30). The rapid March towards urbanization. Financial Times Alphasille. http://ftalphaville.ft.com//2012/08/30/1127791/the-rapid-march-towards-urbanisation/. Accessed December 10, 2017.

  • Meyer, J. W. (1977). The effects of education as an institution. American Journal of Sociology, 83(1), 55–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MOE China. (2015). Laws. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. http://www.moe.edu.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_2803/index.html. Accessed December 10, 2017.

  • National Bureau of Statistics [China]. (2013). Wages in China. China Statistical Yearbook. http://www.clb.org.hk/en/view-resource-centre-content/100206. Accessed December 10, 2017.

  • National Bureau of Statistics [China]. (2015). National Data—Regional—Quarterly by Province. http://data.stats.gov.cn/english/. Accessed December 10, 2017.

  • Nishimura, M. (2006). Considering equity in basic education reform in Japan from the perspective of private costs of education. Asia Pacific Education Review, 7(2), 205–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qian, X., & Smyth, R. (2008). Measuring regional inequality of education in China: Widening coast-inland gap or widening rural-urban gap? Journal of International Development, 20(2), 132–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sampson, R. J., Sharkey, P., & Raudenbush, S. W. (2008). Durable effects of concentrated disadvantage on verbal ability among African-American children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(3), 845–852.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shanahan, P. (2011). Reforming the current model of private investment in Chinese education. Asian-Pacific Law & Policy, 13(1), 210–229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharkey, P. (2008). The Intergenerational transmission of context. American Journal of Sociology, 113(4), 931–969.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharkey, P. (2012a). Residential mobility and the reproduction of unequal neighborhoods. Cityscape, 14(3), 9–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharkey, P. (2012b). Temporary integration, resilient inequality: race and neighborhood change in the transition to adulthood. Demography, 49(3), 889–912.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharkey, P., & Elwert, F. (2011). The legacy of disadvantage: multigenerational neighborhood effects on cognitive ability 1. American Journal of Sociology, 116(6), 1934–1981.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Statista. (2013). Number of migrant workers in China from 2008 to 2013 (in millions). http://www.statista.com/statistics/234578/share-of-migrant-workers-in-china-by-age/. Accessed December 10, 2017.

  • Stout, K. (2013, December 17). Mind the gap: China’s great education divide. CNN World. http://www.cnn.com/2013/12/17/world/asia/china-education-gap-stout/. Accessed December 10, 2017.

  • Sun, J., Buys, N., & Wang, X. (2012). Effects of social identity and poverty on orientation towards mass incidents in mainland China. In C.C. Yeakey (Ed.), Living on the boundaries: Urban marginality in national and international contexts. Bingley: Emerald.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • The World Bank. (2017). Urban population (% of total). The World Bank Data. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=US. Accessed December 10, 2017.

  • UN United Nations. (2014). World urbanization prospects: the 2014 revision. [Highlights]. United Nation Department of Economic and Social Affairs & Population Division. https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/publications/files/wup2014-highlights.pdf. Accessed December 10, 2017.

  • UNICEF. (2015). Children in China: An atlas of social indicators. NWCCW & NBS. http://www.unicef.cn/en/atlas. Accessed December 10, 2017.

  • Wolff, J. R., & Gordon, E. W. (2008). Comprehensive educational equity: the path to meaningful opportunity for excellence. In Comprehensive Educational Equity: Overcoming the Socioeconomic Barriers to School Success Equity Symposium 2008, Teacher College, Columbia University, November 17–18, 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, Y. (2008). Cultural capital, the state, and educational inequality in China, 1949–1996. Sociological Perspectives, 51(1), 201–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, Y. (2012). The examination system in China: The case of Zhongkao mathematics. In 12th International Congress on Mathematical Education (pp. 1–18). http://www.icme12.org/upload/submission/2034_f.pdf.

  • Wu, X., & Treiman, J. D. (2003). The household registration system and social stratification in China: 1955–1996. California Center for Population Research On-Line Working Paper, No. CCPR–006–03.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yeakey, C. C. & Shepard, L. D. (2012). The downward slope of upward mobility in a global economy. In C. C. Yeakey (Ed.), Living on the boundaries: urban marginality in national and international contexts. Emerald.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yeakey, C.C., Thompson, L.S.V., & Wells, A. (2012). Confronting the dilemmas of twenty-first-century urban living in global contexts. In C.C. Yeakey (Ed.) Living on the boundaries: urban marginality in national and international contexts. Emerald.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yu, S., & Hannum, E. (2007). Food for thought: Poverty, family nutritional environment, and children’s educational performance in rural china. Sociological Perspectives, 50(1), 53–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, X., & Kanbur, R. (2005). Spatial inequality in education and health care in China. China Economic Review, 16, 189–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, Y., & Wang, D. (2014). The family socioeconomic effect on extra lessons in Greater China: A comparison between Shanghai, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macao. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, N., Zhu, M., You, B., Gao, X., Wang W., & Zhao, L. (2007). Educational reform and curriculum change in China: a comparative case study. International Bureau of Education. Retrieved from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/COPs/Pages_documents/Comparative_Research/EduReformChina.pdf.

  • Zhu, X. (2012). Understanding China’s growth: Past, present, and future. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 26(4), 103–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, Campus Box 1183, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA

    Ming Yin

Authors
  1. Ming Yin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ming Yin .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institute for Public Policy and Governance, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, New South Wales, Australia

    Bligh Grant

  2. Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

    Cathy Yang Liu

  3. School of Government, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China

    Lin Ye

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Yin, M. (2018). Moving from Rural to Urban: Urbanization and Its Implications for Educational Equality and Equity in China. In: Grant, B., Liu, C., Ye, L. (eds) Metropolitan Governance in Asia and the Pacific Rim. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0206-0_8

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation