SpringerLink
Log in

Middle Paleolithic Large-Mammal Hunting in the Southern Levant

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Zooarchaeology and Modern Human Origins

Part of the book series: Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology ((VERT))

  • 1881 Accesses

Abstract

I examine the ungulate remains from late Middle Paleolithic (MP) Kebara Cave (Israel) and offer evidence pointing to overhunting by Levantine Neanderthals toward the close of the MP: (1) the frequency of red deer and aurochs declined over the course of the sequence, largely independent of major fluctuations in the Levantine speleothem climate record; (2) the proportion of juvenile gazelles and fallow deer increased in the younger levels, as did the proportion of young adults; (3) upward in the sequence, hunters brought back fewer gazelle and fallow deer heads, suggesting that they either had to travel farther to hunt, or that they took many more animals per trip, perhaps in cooperative kills. Taken together, these observations, in conjunction with evidence from other sites in the region, suggest that the resource intensification characteristic of the “Broad Spectrum Revolution” (BSR), may already have begun in the latter part of the MP.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abbo, S., Zezak, I., Schwartz, E., Lev-Yadun, S., Kerem, Z., & Gopher, A. (2008). Wild lentil and chickpea harvest in Israel: Bearing on the origins of Near Eastern farming. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 3172–3177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adler, D. S., & Bar-Oz, G. (2009). Seasonal patterns of prey acquisition and inter-group competition during the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic of the southern Caucasus. In J.-J. Hublin & M. P. Richards (Eds.), The evolution of hominin diets: Integrating approaches to the study of Palaeolithic subsistence (pp. 127–140). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adler, D. S., Bar-Oz, G., Belfer-Cohen, A., & Bar-Yosef, O. (2006). Ahead of the game: Middle and Upper Palaeolithic hunting behaviors in the southern Caucasus. Current Anthropology, 47, 89–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alroy, J. (2001). A multispecies overkill simulation of the end-Pleistocene megafaunal mass extinction. Science, 292, 1893–1896.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ames, B. N. (1983). Dietary carcinogens and anticarcinogens: Oxygen radicals and degenerative diseases. Science, 221, 1256–1264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aranguren, B., Becattini, R., Lippi, M. M., & Revedin, A. (2007). Grinding flour in Upper Palaeolithic Europe (25 000 years bp). Antiquity, 81, 845–855.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atici, A. L. (2009). Implications of age structures for Epipaleolithic hunting strategies in the western Taurus Mountains, southwest Turkey. Anthropozoologica, 44, 13–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baharav, D. (1974). Notes on the population structure and biomass of the mountain gazelle, Gazella gazella gazella. Israel Journal of Zoology, 23, 39–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker, G., Barton, H., Bird, M., Daly, P., Datan, I., Dykes, A., et al. (2007). The ‘human revolution’ in lowland tropical Southeast Asia: The antiquity and behavior of Anatomically Modern Humans at Niah Cave (Sarawak, Borneo). Journal of Human Evolution, 52, 243–261.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Matthews, M., Ayalon, A., & Kaufman, A. (1998). Palaeoclimate evolution in the eastern Mediterranean region during the last 58,000 years as derived from stable isotopes of speleothems (Soreq Cave, Israel). In Isotope Techniques in the Study of Environmental Change. Proceedings of an International Symposium on Isotope Techniques in the Study of Past and Current Environmental Changes in the Hydrosphere and the Atmosphere (pp. 673–682). Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Matthews, M., Ayalon, A., Kaufman, A., & Wasserburg, G. J. (1999). The eastern Mediterranean paleoclimate as a reflection of regional events: Soreq Cave, Israel. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 166, 85–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Matthews, M., Ayalon, A., Gilmour, M., Matthews, A., & Hawkesworth, C. J. (2003). Sea-land oxygen isotopic relationships from planktonic foraminifera and speleothems in the eastern Mediterranean region and their implication for paleorainfall during interglacial intervals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 67, 3181–3199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnosky, A. D., Bell, C. J., Emslie, S. D., Goodwin, H. T., Mead, J. I., Repenning, C. A., et al. (2004). Exceptional record of mid-Pleistocene vertebrates helps differentiate climatic from anthropogenic ecosystem perturbations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 9297–9302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Oz, G. (2004). Epipalaeolithic subsistence strategies in the Levant: A zooarchaeological perspective. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Oz, G., & Dayan, T. (2003). Testing the use of multivariate inter-site taphonomic comparisons: The faunal analysis of Hefzibah in its Epipalaeolithic cultural context. Journal of Archaeological Science, 30, 885–900.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Oz, G., Dayan, T., & Kaufman, D. (1999). The Epipalaeolithic faunal sequence in Israel: A view from Neve David. Journal of Archaeological Science, 26, 67–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Oz, G., Zeder, M., & Hole, F. (2011). Role of mass-kill hunting strategies in the extirpation of Persian gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) in the northern Levant. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 7345–7350.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Yosef, O. (1991). The history of excavations at Kebara Cave. In O. Bar-Yosef & B. Vandermeersch (Eds.), Le Squelette Moustérien de Kébara 2 (pp. 17–27). Paris: Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Yosef, O. (1995). The role of climate in the interpretation of human movements and cultural transformations in western Asia. In E. S. Vrba, G. H. Denton, T. C. Partridge, & L. H. Burckle (Eds.), Paleoclimate and evolution, with emphasis on human origins (pp. 507–523). New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Yosef, O., Vandermeersch, B., Arensburg, B., Belfer-Cohen, A., Goldberg, P., Laville, H., et al. (1992). The excavations in Kebara Cave, Mt. Carmel. Current Anthropology, 33, 497–550.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belmaker, M., & Hovers, E. (2011). Ecological change and the extinction of the Levantine Neanderthals: Implications from a diachronic study of micromammals from Amud Cave, Israel. Quaternary Science Reviews, 30, 3196–3209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benedict, J. B. (2005). Tundra game drives: An arctic-alpine comparison. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, 37, 425–434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benison, C. J. (1999). Burned rock complexes, baked clay objects, steatite, and ceramics: Evolutionary implications for Plains/Eastern Woodlands cooking technologies. North American Archaeologist, 20, 287–317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Betts, A. (1989). The Solubba: Nonpastoral nomads in Arabia. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 274, 61–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binford, L. R. (1978). Nunamiut Ethnoarchaeology. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bliege Bird, R. L., Codding, B. F., & Bird, D. W. (2009). What explains differences in men’s and women’s production? Determinants of gendered foraging inequalities among Martu. Human Nature, 20, 105–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blockley, S. P. E., & Pinhasi, R. (2011). A revised chronology for the adoption of agriculture in the Southern Levant and the role of Lateglacial climatic change. Quaternary Science Reviews, 30, 98–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bocherens, H. (2009). Neanderthal dietary habits: Review of the isotopic evidence. In J.-J. Hublin & M. P. Richards (Eds.), The evolution of hominin diets: Integrating approaches to the study of Palaeolithic subsistence (pp. 241–250). Dordrecht: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bocherens, H. (2011). Diet and ecology of Neanderthals: Implications from C and N isotopes—insights from bone and tooth biogeochemistry. In N. J. Conard & J. Richter (Eds.), Neanderthal lifeways, subsistence and technology: One hundred fifty years of Neanderthal study (pp. 73–85). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bocquet-Appel, J.-P., & Tuffreau, A. (2009). Technological responses of Neanderthals to macroclimatic variations (240,000–40,000 BP). Human Biology, 81, 287–307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brace, C. L., Rosenberg, K. R., & Hunt, K. D. (1987). Gradual change in human tooth size in the late Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene. Evolution, 41, 705–720.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bratlund, B. (2000). Taubach revisited. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz, 46, 61–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brink, J. W. (2005). Inukshuk: caribou drive lanes on southern Victoria Island, Nunavut, Canada. Arctic Anthropology, 42, 1–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brook, B. W., & Bowman, D. M. J. S. (2004). The uncertain blitzkrieg of Pleistocene megafauna. Journal of Biogeography, 31, 517–523.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, A. S. (1996). Open air sites in the Middle Stone Age of Africa. In N. J. Conard & F. Wendorf (Eds.), Middle Palaeolithic and Middle Stone Age settlement system, International Union of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences. Proceedings of the XIII International Congress of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences, Forli, Italy, 8–14 September 1996, Vol. 6, Workshops, Tome 1 (pp. 249–253). Forli: ABACO Edizioni.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broughton, J. M. (1994). Declines in mammalian foraging efficiency during the late Holocene, San Francisco Bay, California. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 13, 371–401.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broughton, J. M. (1997). Widening diet breadth, declining foraging efficiency, and prehistoric harvest pressure: Ichthyofaunal evidence from the Emeryville Shellmound, California. Antiquity, 71, 845–862.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carmody, R. N., & Wrangham, R. W. (2009). The energetic significance of cooking. Journal of Human Evolution, 57, 379–391.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapman, D. I., & Chapman, N. G. (1975). Fallow deer: Their history, distribution and biology. Lavenham, Suffolk: Terence Dalton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colson, E. (1979). In good years and in bad: Food strategies of self-reliant societies. Journal of Anthropological Research, 35, 18–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daniau, A.-L., d’Errico, F., & Sánchez Goñi, M. F. (2010). Testing the hypothesis of fire use for ecosystem management by Neanderthal and Upper Palaeolithic modern human populations. PLoS One, 5. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009157

  • Davis, S. J. M. (1977). The ungulate remains from Kebara Cave. In B. Arensburg & O. Bar-Yosef (Eds.), Moshé Stekelis Memorial Volume (pp. 150–163). Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, S. J. M. (1982). Climatic change and the advent of domestication: The succession of ruminant artiodactyls in the late Pleistocene-Holocene in the Israeli region. Paléorient, 8, 5–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, S. J. M. (1983). The age profiles of gazelle predated by ancient man in Israel: Possible evidence for a shift from seasonality to sedentism in the Natufian. Paléorient, 9, 55–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, S. J. M. (1989). Why did prehistoric people domesticate food animals? The bones from Hatoula 1980-86. In O. Bar-Yosef & B. Vandermeersch (Eds.), Investigations in South Levantine Prehistory (Préhistoire du Sud-Levant) (pp. 43–59). Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, S. J. M., Rabinovich, R., & Goren-Inbar, N. (1988). Quaternary extinctions and population increase in western Asia: The animal remains from Biq’at Quneitra. Paléorient, 14, 95–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Domínguez-Rodrigo, M. (1999). The study of skeletal part profiles: An ambiguous taphonomic tool for zooarchaeology. Complutum, 10, 15–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dominy, N. J., Vogel, E. R., Yeakel, J. D., Constantino, P., & Lucas, P. W. (2008). Mechanical properties of plant underground storage organs and implications for dietary models of early hominins. Evolutionary Biology, 35, 159–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, D. A., & O’Connell, J. F. (1995). Broad spectrum diets in arid Australia. Antiquity, 69, 769–783.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenmann, V. (1992). Systematic and biostratigraphical interpretation of the equids from Qafzeh, Tabun, Skhul and Kebara (Acheulo-Yabrudian to Upper Paleolithic of Israel). Archaeozoologia, 5, 43–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • El Zaatari, S. (2007). Ecogeographic variation in Neandertal dietary habits: Evidence from microwear texture analysis. Ph.D. dissertation, State University of New York, Stony Brook.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emery-Barbier, A., & Thiébault, S. (2005). Preliminary conclusions on the Late Glacial vegetation in south-west Anatolia (Turkey): The complementary nature of palynological and anthracological approaches. Journal of Archaeological Science, 32, 1232–1251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ewers, J. C. (1958). The Blackfeet: Raiders on the Northwestern Plains. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fairbairn, A. S., Hope, G. S., & Summerhayes, G. R. (2006). Pleistocene occupation of New Guinea’s highland and subalpine environments. World Archaeology, 38, 371–386.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiorenza, L., Benazzi, S., Tausch, J., Kullmer, O., Bromage, T. G., & Schrenk, F. (2011). Molar Macrowear reveals Neanderthal eco-geographic dietary variation. PLoS One, 6. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014769

  • Flannery, K. V. (1969). Origins and ecological effects of early domestication in Iran and the Near East. In P. J. Ucko & G. W. Dimbleby (Eds.), The domestication and exploitation of plants and animals (pp. 73–100). Chicago: Aldine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, R. I. (1974). Northeastern archaeology: Past and future directions. Annual Review of Anthropology, 3, 385–413.

    Google Scholar 

  • Funk, C. L. (2011). Yup’ik Eskimo gendered information storage patterns. In R. E. Whallon, W. A. Lovis, & R. K. Hitchcock (Eds.), Information and its role in Hunter-Gatherer Bands (pp. 29–58). Los Angeles: University of California, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garrigan, D., & Kingan, S. B. (2007). Archaic human admixture: A view from the genome. Current Anthropology, 48, 895–902.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaudzinski, S. (1998). Large mammal hunting strategies in the Palaeolithic of Europe: A taphonomic approach. In J. Bayley (Ed.), Science in archaeology: An agenda for the future (pp. 47–62). London: English Heritage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaudzinski, S. (2000). On the variability of Middle Palaeolithic procurement tactics: The case of Salzgitter Lebenstedt, northern Germany. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 10, 396–406.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaudzinski, S. (2006). Monospecific or species-dominated faunal assemblages during the Middle Paleolithic in Europe. In E. Hovers & S. L. Kuhn (Eds.), Transitions before the transition: Evolution and stability in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age (pp. 137–147). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaudzinski-Windheuser, S., & Niven, L. (2009). Hominin subsistence patterns during the Middle and Late Paleolithic in northwestern Europe. In J.-J. Hublin & M. P. Richards (Eds.), The evolution of hominin diets: Integrating approaches to the study of Palaeolithic subsistence (pp. 99–111). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilead, I., & Grigson, C. (1984). Far’ah II: A Middle Palaeolithic open-air site in the northern Negev, Israel. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, 50, 71–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goren-Inbar, N. (Ed.). (1990). Quneitra: A Mousterian site on the Golan heights. Qedem, Monograph 31. Jerusalem: Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Institute of Archaeology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gramly, R. M. (1977). Deerskins and hunting territories: Competition for a scarce resource of the northeastern woodlands. American Antiquity, 42, 601–605.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, R. E., Krause, J., Briggs, A. W., Maricic, T., Stenzel, U., Kircher, M., et al. (2010). A draft sequence of the Neandertal genome. Science, 328, 710–722.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hallin, K. A., Schoeninger, M. J., & Schwarcz, H. P. (2012). Paleoclimate during Neandertal and anatomically modern human occupation at Amud and Qafzeh, Israel: The stable isotope data. Journal of Human Evolution, 62, 59–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halstead, P. L. J., & O’Shea, J. M. (1989). Introduction: Cultural responses to risk and uncertainty. In P. L. J. Halstead & J. M. O’Shea (Eds.), Bad year economics: Cultural responses to risk and uncertainty (pp. 1–7). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haltenorth, T. (1959). Beitrag zur kenntnis des Mesopotamischen damhirsches—Cervus (Dama) mesopotamicus Brooke, 1875—und zur stammes- und verbreitungsgeschichte der damhirsche allgemein. Säugetierkundliche Mitteilungen, 7, 1–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawks, J. D., Cochran, G., Harpending, H. C., & Lahn, B. T. (2008). A genetic legacy from archaic Homo. Trends in Genetics, 24, 19–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayden, B. (1981). Subsistence and ecological adaptations of modern hunter-gatherers. In R. S. O. Harding & G. Teleki (Eds.), Omnivorous primates: Gathering and hunting in human evolution (pp. 344–421). New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haynes, G. (2002). The catastrophic extinction of North American mammoths and mastodonts. World Archaeology, 33, 391–416.

    Google Scholar 

  • Headland, T. N., & Greene, H. W. (2011). Hunter-gatherers and other primates as prey, predators, and competitors of snakes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, E1470–E1474.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry, A. G., Brooks, A. S., & Piperno, D. R. (2011). Microfossils in calculus demonstrate consumption of plants and cooked foods in Neanderthal diets (Shanidar III, Iraq; Spy I and II, Belgium). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 486–491.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holt, B. M., & Formicola, V. (2008). Hunters of the ice age: The biology of Upper Paleolithic people. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 137, 70–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holzer, A., Avner, U., Porat, N., & Horwitz, L. K. (2010). Desert kites in the Negev Desert and northeast Sinai: Their function, chronology and ecology. Journal of Arid Environments, 74, 806–817.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hovers, E. (2006). Neandertals and modern humans in the Middle Paleolithic of the Levant: What kind of interaction? In N. J. Conard (Ed.), When Neanderthals and modern humans met (pp. 65–85). Tübingen: Kerns Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hovers, E., Rak, Y., & Kimbel, W. H. (1991). Amud Cave—1991 season. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society, 24, 152–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, S. R. (1990). Monitoring archaeofaunal changes during the transition to agriculture in the American Southwest. Kiva, 56, 25–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johns, T. A. (1990). With bitter herbs they shall eat it: Chemical ecology and the origins of human diet and medicine. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johns, T. A., & Duquette, M. (1991). Detoxification and mineral supplementation as functions of geophagy. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 53, 448–456.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, C. N. (2002). Determinants of loss of mammal species during the late Quaternary ‘megafauna’ extinctions: Life history and ecology, but not body size. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B. Biological Sciences, 269B, 2221–2227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, M. (2009). Moving north: Archaeobotanical evidence for plant diet in Middle and Upper Paleolithic Europe. In J.-J. Hublin & M. P. Richards (Eds.), The evolution of hominin diets: Integrating approaches to the study of Palaeolithic subsistence (pp. 171–180). Dordrecht: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz, S. H., Hediger, M. L., & Valleroy, L. A. (1974). Traditional maize processing techniques in the New World: Anthropological and nutritional significance. Science, 184, 765–773.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kershaw, A. P., Clark, J. S., Gill, A. M., & D’Costa, D. M. (2002). A history of fire in Australia. In R. A. Bradstock, J. E. Williams, & A. M. Gill (Eds.), Flammable Australia: The fire regimes and biodiversity of a continent (pp. 3–25). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kittler, R., Kayser, M., & Stoneking, M. (2003). Molecular evolution of Pediculus humanus and the origin of clothing. Current Biology, 13, 1414–1417.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, R. G. (1982). Age (mortality) profiles as a means of distinguishing hunted species from scavenged ones in Stone Age archaeological sites. Paleobiology, 8, 151–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klokkernes, T. (2007). Skin processing technology in Eurasian reindeer cultures: A comparative study in material science of Sàmi and Evenk methods—Perspectives on deterioration and preservation of museum artefacts. Rudkøbing: Langelands Museum, LMR Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koike, H., & Ohtaishi, N. (1985). Prehistoric hunting pressure estimated by the age composition of excavated Sika Deer (Cervus nippon) using the annual layer of tooth cement. Journal of Archaeological Science, 12, 434–456.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koike, H., & Ohtaishi, N. (1987). Estimation of prehistoric hunting rates based on the age composition of Sika Deer (Cervus nippon). Journal of Archaeological Science, 14, 251–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, S. L., & Stiner, M. C. (2006). What’s a mother to do? The division of labor among Neandertals and modern humans in Eurasia. Current Anthropology, 47, 953–980.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lahr, M. M., & Foley, R. A. (2003). Demography, dispersal and human evolution in the Last Glacial period. In T. H. van Andel & W. Davies (Eds.), Neanderthals and modern humans in the European landscape during the last glaciation: Archaeological results of the Stage 3 Project (pp. 241–256). Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leo, N. P., & Barker, S. C. (2005). Unravelling the evolution of the head lice and body lice of humans. Parasitology Research, 98, 44–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lev, E., Kislev, M. E., & Bar-Yosef, O. (2005). Mousterian vegetal food in Kebara Cave, Mt. Carmel. Journal of Archaeological Science, 32, 475–484.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, H. T. (1982). Fire technology and resource management in Aboriginal North America and Australia. In N. M. Williams & E. S. Hunn (Eds.), Resource managers: North American and Australian hunter-gatherers (pp. 45–68). Boulder: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, D. E., Krovitz, G. E., Yates, F. W., Devlin, M., & St. Claire, M. (2004). Effects of food processing on masticatory strain and craniofacial growth in a retrognathic face. Journal of Human Evolution, 46, 655–677.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lourandos, H. (1997). Continent of hunter-gatherers: New perspectives in Australian Prehistory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, P. W. (2006). Facial dwarfing and dental crowding in relation to diet. In T. G. Bromage, A. Vidal, F. Ramón Areces, E. Aguirre, & A. Perez-Ochoa (Eds.), Integrative Approaches to Human Health and Evolution. Proceedings of the International Symposium “Integrative Approaches to Human and Evolution,” Madrid, 18–20 April, 2005 (pp. 74–82). International Congress Series 1296. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, P. W., Sui, Z., Ang, K. Y., Tan, H. T. W., King, S. H., Sadler, B., et al. (2009). Meals versus snacks and the human dentition and diet during the Paleolithic. In J.-J. Hublin & M. P. Richards (Eds.), The evolution of hominin diets: Integrating approaches to the study of Palaeolithic subsistence (pp. 31–41). Dordrecht: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lupo, K. D. (2007). Evolutionary foraging models in zooarchaeological analysis: Recent applications and future challenges. Journal of Archaeological Research, 15, 143–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lupo, K. D., & Schmitt, D. N. (2002). Upper Paleolithic net-hunting, small prey exploitation, and women’s work effort: A view from the ethnographic and ethnoarchaeological record of the Congo Basin. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 9, 147–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyman, R. L. (1994). Vertebrate taphonomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyons, S. K., Smith, F. A., & Brown, J. H. (2004). Of mice, mastodons and men: Human-mediated extinctions on four continents. Evolutionary Ecology Research, 6, 339–358.

    Google Scholar 

  • Madella, M., Jones, M. K., Goldberg, P., Goren, Y., & Hovers, E. (2002). The exploitation of plant resources by Neanderthals in Amud Cave (Israel): The evidence from phytolith studies. Journal of Archaeological Science, 29, 703–719.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manne, T. H., Stiner, M. C., & Bicho, N. F. (2005). Evidence for bone grease rendering during the Upper Paleolithic at Vale Boi (Algarve, Portugal). In N. F. Bicho (Ed.), Animais na Pré-história e Arqueologia da Península Ibérica. Actas do IV Congresso de Arqueologia Peninsular. Congresso de Arqueologia Peninsular, Faro, 2004 (pp. 145–158). Promontoria Monográfica 3. Faro: Centro de Estudos de Património, Universidade do Algarve.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marder, O., Yeshurun, R., Lupu, R., Bar-Oz, G., Belmaker, M., Porat, N., et al. (2011). Mammal remains at Rantis Cave, Israel, and Middle-Late Pleistocene human subsistence and ecology in the Southern Levant. Journal of Quaternary Science, 26, 769–780.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marean, C. W., & Kim, S. Y. (1998). Mousterian large-mammal remains from Kobeh Cave: Behavioral implications for Neanderthals and early modern humans. Current Anthropology, 39, S79–S113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, L. (2000). Gazelle (Gazella spp.) behavioral ecology: Predicting animal behaviour for prehistoric environments in South-west Asia. Journal of Zoology (London), 250, 13–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, P. S. (2005). Twilight of the mammoths: Ice age extinctions and rewilding of America. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meignen, L., Beyries, S., Speth, J. D., & Bar-Yosef, O. (1998). Acquisition, traitement des matières animales et fonction du site au Paléolithique Moyen dans la Grotte de Kébara (Israël): approche interdisciplinaire. In J.-P. Brugal, L. Meignen, & M. Patou-Mathis (Eds.), Économie Préhistorique: Les Comportements de Subsistance au Paléolithique (pp. 227–241). Sophia Antipolis: APDCA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meignen, L., Bar-Yosef, O., Speth, J. D., & Stiner, M. C. (2006). Middle Paleolithic settlement patterns in the Levant. In E. Hovers & S. L. Kuhn (Eds.), Transitions before the transition: Evolution and stability in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age (pp. 149–170). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendelssohn, H., & Yom-Tov, Y. (1987). Plants and animals of the land of Israel, Vol. 7, Mammals. Tel Aviv: Israel Defense Ministry Publishing House [in Hebrew].

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendelssohn, H., & Yom-Tov, Y. (1999). Mammalia of Israel. Fauna Palaestina. Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mercier, N., Valladas, H., Froget, L., Joron, J.-L., Reyss, J.-L., Weiner, S., et al. (2007). Hayonim Cave: A TL-based chronology for this Levantine Mousterian sequence. Journal of Archaeological Science, 34, 1064–1077.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller Rosen, A. (2003). The microbotanical evidence. In D. O. Henry (Ed.), Neanderthals in the Levant: Behavioral organization and the beginnings of human modernity (pp. 156–171). London: Continuum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Minc, L. D. (1986). Scarcity and survival: The role of oral tradition in mediating subsistence crises. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 5, 39–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Minc, L. D., & Smith, K. (1989). The spirit of survival: Cultural responses to resource variability in north Alaska. In P. L. J. Halstead & J. M. O’Shea (Eds.), Bad year economics: Cultural responses to risk and uncertainty (pp. 8–39). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Minnis, P. E. (1985). Social adaptation to food stress: A prehistoric southwestern example. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Monks, G. G. (1981). Seasonality studies. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, 4, 177–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munro, N. D. (2003). Small game, the Younger Dryas, and the transition to agriculture in the Southern Levant. Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte, 12, 47–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munro, N. D. (2004). Zooarchaeological measures of hunting pressure and occupation intensity in the Natufian: Implications for agricultural origins. Current Anthropology, 45, S5–S33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munro, N. D. (2009a). Epipaleolithic subsistence intensification in the Southern Levant: The faunal evidence. In J.-J. Hublin & M. P. Richards (Eds.), The evolution of hominid diets: Integrating approaches to the study of Palaeolithic subsistence (pp. 141–155). Dordrecht: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munro, N. D. (2009b). Integrating inter- and intra-site analyses of Epipalaeolithic faunal assemblages from Israel. Before Farming, 1, 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munro, N. D., & Bar-Oz, G. (2004). Debating issues of equifinality in ungulate skeletal part studies. Journal of Taphonomy, 2, 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munson, P. J., & Garniewicz, R. C. (2003). Age-mediated survivorship of ungulate mandibles and teeth in canid-ravaged faunal assemblages. Journal of Archaeological Science, 30, 405–416.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munson, P. J., & Marean, C. W. (2003). Adults only? A reconsideration of Middle Paleolithic ‘prime-dominated’ reindeer hunting at Salzgitter Lebenstedt. Journal of Human Evolution, 44, 263–273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nabhan, G. P. (2004). Why some like it hot: Food, genes, and cultural diversity. Washington, DC: Island Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nakazawa, Y., Straus, L. G., González-Morales, M. R., Solana, D. C., & Saiz, J. C. (2009). On stoneboiling technology in the Upper Paleolithic: Behavioral implications from an early Magdalenian hearth in El Mirón Cave, Cantabria, Spain. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36, 684–693.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nugent, G., Fraser, K. W., Asher, G. W., & Tustin, K. G. (2001). Advances in New Zealand mammalogy 1990–2000: Deer. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 31, 263–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connell, J. F., Hawkes, K., & Blurton Jones, N. G. (1988). Hadza hunting, butchering, and bone transport and their archaeological implications. Journal of Anthropological Research, 44, 113–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connell, J. F., Hawkes, K., & Blurton Jones, N. G. (1990). Reanalysis of large mammal body part transport among the Hadza. Journal of Archaeological Science, 17, 301–316.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connell, J. F., Hawkes, K., & Blurton Jones, N. G. (1992). Patterns in the distribution, site structure and assemblage composition of Hadza kill-butchering sites. Journal of Archaeological Science, 19, 319–345.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pardoe, C. (1988). The cemetery as symbol: The distribution of prehistoric Aboriginal burial grounds in southeastern Australia. Archaeology in Oceania, 23, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pardoe, C. (1994). Bioscapes: The evolutionary landscape of Australia. Archaeology in Oceania, 29, 182–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pardoe, C. (1995). Riverine, biological and cultural evolution in southeastern Australia. Antiquity, 69, 696–713.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pettitt, P. B. (2010). The Palaeolithic origins of human burial. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pike-Tay, A., & Cosgrove, R. (2002). From reindeer to wallaby: Recovering patterns of seasonality, mobility, and prey selection in the Palaeolithic Old World. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 9, 101–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinter, N., Fiedel, S., & Keeley, J. E. (2011). Fire and vegetation shifts in the Americas at the vanguard of Paleoindian migration. Quaternary Science Reviews, 30, 269–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piperno, D. R., Weiss, E., Holst, I., & Nadel, D. (2004). Processing of wild cereal grains in the Upper Palaeolithic revealed by starch grain analysis. Nature, 430, 670–673.

    Google Scholar 

  • Potter, J. M. (2000). Pots, parties, and politics: Communal feasting in the American Southwest. American Antiquity, 65, 471–492.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rabinovich, R., & Hovers, E. (2004). Faunal analysis from Amud Cave: Preliminary results and interpretations. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 14, 287–306.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rabinovich, R., & Tchernov, E. (1995). Chronological, paleoecological and taphonomical aspects of the Middle Paleolithic site of Qafzeh, Israel. In H. Buitenhuis & H.-P. Uerpmann (Eds.), Archaeozoology of the Near East, II, Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on the Archaeozoology of Southwestern Asia and Adjacent Areas (pp. 5–44). Leiden: Backhuys.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rawlinson, G. (1859). The history of Herodotus, Vol. III, Book IV—Melpomene. London: John Murray.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reed, D. L., Smith, V. S., Hammond, S. L., Rogers, A. R., & Clayton, D. H. (2004). Genetic analysis of lice supports direct contact between modern and archaic humans. PLoS Biology, 2, e340. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020340

  • Rendu, W., Costamagno, S., Meignen, L., & Soulier, M.-C. (2012). Monospecific faunal spectra in Mousterian contexts: Implications for social behavior. Quaternary International, 247, 50–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards, M. P., Pettitt, P. B., Stiner, M. C., & Trinkaus, E. (2001). Stable isotope evidence for increasing dietary breadth in the European mid-Upper Paleolithic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98, 6528–6532.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richter, J. (2000). Social memory among late Neanderthals. In J. Orschiedt & G.-C. Weniger (Eds.), Neanderthals and modern humans—Discussing the transition: Central and Eastern Europe from 50.000-30.000 B.P. (pp. 123–132). Wissenschaftliche Schriften des Neanderthal Museums 2. Mettmann: Neanderthal Museums.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, R. G., Flannery, T. F., Ayliffe, L. K., Yoshida, H., Olley, J. M., Prideaux, G. J., et al. (2001). New ages for the last Australian megafauna: Continent-wide extinction about 46,000 years ago. Science, 292, 1888–1892.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowland, M. J. (2002). Geophagy: An assessment of implications for the development of Australian indigenous plant processing technologies. Australian Aboriginal Studies, 2002, 51–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowland, J. C. (2006). Inter- and intra-tooth isotopic variation in mammalian tooth enamel from Western Israel: Implications for paleoenvironmental and paleoclimate change over the past 350 kyr. M.S. Thesis, University of Arizona, Tucson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryder, M. L. (1966). Can one cook in a skin? Antiquity, 40, 225–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryder, M. L. (1969). Paunch cooking. Antiquity, 43, 218–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sackett, L. (1979). The pursuit of prominence: Hunting in an Australian Aboriginal community. Anthropologica, 21, 223–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sapir-Hen, L., Bar-Oz, G., Khalaily, H., & Dayan, T. (2009). Gazelle exploitation in the early Neolithic site of Motza, Israel: The last of the gazelle hunters in the Southern Levant. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36, 1538–1546.

    Google Scholar 

  • SAS Institute. (1998). StatView reference (2nd ed.). Cary, NC: SAS Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schick, T., & Stekelis, M. (1977). Mousterian assemblages in Kebara Cave, Mount Carmel. In B. Arensburg & O. Bar-Yosef (Eds.), Moshé Stekelis Memorial Volume (pp. 97–149). Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Semaw, S. (2000). The world’s oldest stone artefacts from Gona, Ethiopia: Their implications for understanding stone technology and patterns of human evolution between 2.6-1.5 million years ago. Journal of Archaeological Science, 27, 1197–1214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shea, J. J. (2008). Transitions or turnovers? Climatically-forced extinctions of Homo sapiens and Neanderthals in the east Mediterranean Levant. Quaternary Science Reviews, 27, 2253–2270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slobodkin, L. B. (1968). Toward a predictive theory of evolution. In R. C. Lewontin (Ed.), Population biology and evolution (pp. 187–205). Syracuse: University of Syracuse Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slobodkin, L. B., & Rapoport, A. (1974). An optimal strategy of evolution. Quarterly Review of Biology, 49, 181–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sokal, R. R., & Rohlf, F. J. (1969). Biometry: The principles and practice of statistics in biological research. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Speth, J. D. (1997). Communal bison hunting in western North America: Background for the study of Paleolithic bison hunting in Europe. In M. Patou-Mathis & M. Otte (Eds.), L’Alimentation des Hommes du Paléolithique: Approche Pluridisciplinaire (pp. 23–57). Etudes et Recherches Archéologiques de l’Université de Liège (ERAUL) 83. Liège: Université de Liège.

    Google Scholar 

  • Speth, J. D. (2004a). Hunting pressure, subsistence intensification, and demographic change in the Levantine late Middle Paleolithic. In N. Goren-Inbar & J. D. Speth (Eds.), Human Paleoecology in the Levantine Corridor (pp. 149–166). Oxford: Oxbow Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Speth, J. D. (2004b). News flash: Negative evidence convicts Neanderthals of gross mental incompetence. World Archaeology, 36, 519–526.

    Google Scholar 

  • Speth, J. D. (2006). Housekee**, Neandertal-style: Hearth placement and midden formation in Kebara Cave (Israel). In E. Hovers & S. L. Kuhn (Eds.), Transitions before the transition: Evolution and stability in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age (pp. 171–188). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Speth, J. D. (2010a). Boiling vs. roasting in the Paleolithic: Broadening the “broadening food spectrum”. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society (Mitekufat Ha’even), 40, 63–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Speth, J. D. (2010b). The Paleoanthropology and archaeology of big-game hunting: Protein, fat or politics? New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Speth, J. D., & Clark, J. L. (2006). Hunting and overhunting in the Levantine late Middle Palaeolithic. Before Farming, 3, 1–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Speth, J. D., & Scott, S. L. (1989). Horticulture and large-mammal hunting: The role of resource depletion and the constraints of time and labor. In S. Kent (Ed.), Farmers as hunters (pp. 71–79). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Speth, J. D., & Tchernov, E. (1998). The role of hunting and scavenging in Neandertal procurement strategies: New evidence from Kebara Cave (Israel). In T. Akazawa, K. Aoki, & O. Bar-Yosef (Eds.), Neandertals and modern humans in Western Asia (pp. 223–239). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Speth, J. D., & Tchernov, E. (2001). Neandertal hunting and meat-processing in the Near East: Evidence from Kebara Cave (Israel). In C. B. Stanford & H. T. Bunn (Eds.), Meat-eating and human evolution (pp. 52–72). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Speth, J. D., & Tchernov, E. (2007). The Middle Paleolithic occupations at Kebara Cave: A faunal perspective. In O. Bar-Yosef & L. Meignen (Eds.), Kebara Cave, Mt. Carmel, Israel: The Middle and Upper Paleolithic Archaeology, Part I (pp. 165–260). American School of Prehistoric Research Bulletin 49. Cambridge: Harvard University, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Speth, J. D., Meignen, L., Bar-Yosef, O., & Goldberg, P. (2012). The spatial organization of Middle Paleolithic occupation X in Kebara Cave (Israel): The concentrations of animal bones. Quaternary International, 247, 85–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stahl, A. B. (1989). Plant-food processing: Implications for dietary quality. In D. R. Harris & G. C. Hillman (Eds.), Foraging and farming: The evolution of plant exploitation (pp. 171–194). London: Unwin Hyman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stefansson, V. (1921). The friendly arctic: The story of five years in polar regions. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner, M. C. (1994). Honor among thieves: A zooarchaeological study of Neandertal Ecology. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner, M. C. (2001). Thirty years on the “broad spectrum revolution” and Paleolithic demography. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98, 6993–6996.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner, M. C. (2003). Zooarchaeological evidence for resource intensification in Algarve, southern Portugal. Promontoria, Revista do Departamento de Historia, Arqueologia e Patrimonio da Universidade do Algarve, 1, 27–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner, M. C. (2005). The Faunas of Hayonim Cave, Israel: A 200,000-Year record of Paleolithic diet, demography, and society. American School of Prehistoric Research Bulletin 48. Cambridge: Harvard University, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner, M. C. (2006). Middle Paleolithic subsistence ecology in the Mediterranean region. In E. Hovers & S. L. Kuhn (Eds.), Transitions before the transition: Evolution and stability in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age (pp. 213–231). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner, M. C. (2009a). Prey choice, site occupation intensity and economic diversity in the Middle-early Upper Palaeolithic at the Üçağızlı Caves, Turkey. Before Farming, 3, 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner, M. C. (2009b). The antiquity of large game hunting in the Mediterranean Paleolithic: Evidence from mortality patterns. In J. J. Shea & D. E. Lieberman (Eds.), Transitions in prehistory: Papers in honor of Ofer Bar-Yosef (pp. 105–125). Harvard University, American School of Prehistoric Research. Cambridge: Peabody Museum Press/Brill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner, M. C., & Munro, N. D. (2011). On the evolution of diet and landscape during the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic at Franchthi Cave (Peloponnese, Greece). Journal of Human Evolution, 60, 618–636.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner, M. C., Munro, N. D., Surovell, T. A., Tchernov, E., & Bar-Yosef, O. (1999). Paleolithic population growth pulses evidenced by small animal exploitation. Science, 283, 190–194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner, M. C., Munro, N. D., & Surovell, T. A. (2000). The tortoise and the hare: Small-game use, the broad-spectrum revolution, and Paleolithic demography. Current Anthropology, 41, 39–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner, M. C., Gopher, A., & Barkai, R. (2011). Hearth-side socioeconomics, hunting and paleoecology during the late Lower Paleolithic at Qesem Cave, Israel. Journal of Human Evolution, 60, 213–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stutz, A. J., Munro, N. D., & Bar-Oz, G. (2009). Increasing the resolution of the broad spectrum revolution in the Southern Levantine Epipaleolithic (19-12 ka). Journal of Human Evolution, 56, 294–306.

    Google Scholar 

  • Surovell, T. A., Waguespack, N., & Brantingham, P. J. (2005). Global archaeological evidence for proboscidean overkill. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102, 6231–6236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tchernov, E. (1998). The faunal sequence of the Southwest Asian Middle Paleolithic in relation to hominid dispersal events. In T. Akazawa, K. Aoki, & O. Bar-Yosef (Eds.), Neandertals and modern humans in Western Asia (pp. 77–90). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thoms, A. V. (2009). Rocks of ages: Propagation of hot-rock cookery in western North America. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36, 573–591.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toups, M. A., Kitchen, A., Light, J. E., & Reed, D. L. (2011). Origin of clothing lice indicates early clothing use by Anatomically Modern Humans in Africa. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 28, 29–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, R., Roberts, N., Eastwood, W. J., Jenkins, E., & Rosen, A. (2010). Fire, climate and the origins of agriculture: Micro-charcoal records of biomass burning during the Last Glacial-Interglacial transition in Southwest Asia. Journal of Quaternary Science, 25, 371–386.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turney, C. S. M., Kershaw, A. P., Moss, P., Bird, M. I., Fifield, L. K., Cresswell, R. G., et al. (2001). Redating the onset of burning at Lynch’s Crater (North Queensland): Implications for human settlement in Australia. Journal of Quaternary Science, 16, 767–771.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaks, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Ayalon, A., Schilman, B., Gilmour, M., Hawkesworth, C. J., et al. (2003). Paleoclimate reconstruction based on the timing of speleothem growth and oxygen and carbon isotope composition in a cave located in the rain shadow in Israel. Quaternary Research, 59, 182–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Valladas, H., & Valladas, G. (1991). Datation par la thermoluminescence de silex chauffés des grottes de Kébara et de Qafzeh. In O. Bar-Yosef & B. Vandermeersch (Eds.), Le Squelette Moustérien de Kébara 2 (pp. 43–47). Cahiers de Paléoanthropologie. Paris: CNRS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Valladas, H., Joron, J.-L., Valladas, G., Arensburg, B., Bar-Yosef, O., Belfer-Cohen, A., et al. (1987). Thermoluminescence dates for the Neanderthal burial site at Kebara in Israel. Nature, 330, 159–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Valladas, H., Mercier, N., Froget, L., Hovers, E., Joron, J.-L., Kimbel, W. H., et al. (1999). TL dates for the Neanderthal site of the Amud Cave, Israel. Journal of Archaeological Science, 26, 259–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • von den Driesch, A. (1976). A guide to the measurement of animal bones from archaeological sites. Peabody Museum Bulletin 1. Cambridge: Harvard University, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wall, J. D., Lohmueller, K. E., & Plagnol, V. (2009). Detecting ancient admixture and estimating demographic parameters in multiple human populations. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 26, 1823–1827.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wandsnider, L. (1997). The roasted and the boiled: Food composition and heat treatment with special emphasis on pit-hearth cooking. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 16, 1–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ware, J. A. (1983). Environmental change and sociocultural causality. In J. E. Smith (Ed.), Proceedings of the Anasazi Symposium 1981 (pp. 125–132). Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado: Mesa Verde Museum Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, S., Goldberg, P., & Bar-Yosef, O. (1993). Bone preservation in Kebara Cave, Israel using on-site Fourier transform infrared spectrometry. Journal of Archaeological Science, 20, 613–627.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, E., Kislev, M. E., Simchoni, O., & Nadel, D. (2004a). Small-grained wild grasses as staple food at the 23,000-year-old site of Ohalo II, Israel. Economic Botany, 58, S125–S134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, E., Wetterstrom, W., Nadel, D., & Bar-Yosef, O. (2004b). The broad spectrum revisited: Evidence from plant remains. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 9551–9555.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whallon, R. E. (2011). An introduction to information and its role in hunter-gatherer bands. In R. E. Whallon, W. A. Lovis, & R. K. Hitchcock (Eds.), Information and its role in hunter-gatherer bands (pp. 1–27). Los Angeles: University of California, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, J. P. (1977). Crude, colourless and unenterprising? Prehistorians and their views on the stone age of Sunda and Sahul. In J. Allen, J. Golson, & R. Jones (Eds.), Sunda and Sahul (pp. 13–30). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiessner, P. (2002). Hunting, healing, and hxaro exchange: A long-term perspective on !Kung (Ju/’hoansi) large-game hunting. Evolution and Human Behavior, 23, 407–436.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winterhalder, B. (1981). Optimal foraging strategies and hunter-gatherer research in anthropology: Theory and models. In B. Winterhalder & E. A. Smith (Eds.), Hunter-gatherer foraging strategies: Ethnographic and archaeological analyses (pp. 13–35). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wissler, C. (1910). Material culture of the Blackfoot Indians. Anthropological Paper (Vol. 5, Issue 1). New York: American Museum of Natural History.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, S. A., Griffith, B., & Wolfe, C. A. G. (2000). Response of reindeer and caribou to human activities. Polar Research, 19, 63–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wollstonecroft, M. M., Ellis, P. R., Hillman, G. C., & Fuller, D. Q. (2008). Advances in plant food processing in the Near Eastern Epipalaeolithic and implications for improved edibility and nutrient bioaccessibility: An experimental assessment of Bolboschoenus maritimus (L.) Palla (sea club-rush). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 17, S19–S27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolverton, S. (2008). Harvest pressure and environmental carrying capacity: An ordinal-scale model of effects on ungulate prey. American Antiquity, 73, 179–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wrangham, R. W. (2009). Catching fire: How cooking made us human. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wrangham, R. W., & Conklin-Brittain, N. L. (2003). Cooking as a biological trait. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A. Molecular and Integrative Physiology, 136, 35–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yeshurun, R., Bar-Oz, G., & Weinstein-Evron, M. (2007). Modern hunting behavior in the early Middle Paleolithic: Faunal remains from Misliya Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel. Journal of Human Evolution, 53, 656–677.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yotova, V., Lefebvre, J.-F., Moreau, C., Gbeha, E., Hovhannesyan, K., Bourgeois, S., et al. (2011). An X-linked haplotype of Neandertal origin is present among all non-African populations. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 28, 1957–1962.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zedeño, M. N. (2008). Bundled worlds: The roles and interactions of complex objects from the North American plains. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 15, 362–378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, S., Li, Z., Zhang, Y., & Gao, X. (2009). Mortality profiles of the large herbivores from the Ling**g Xuchang Man Site, Henan Province and the early emergence of the modern human behaviors in East Asia. Chinese Science Bulletin, 54, 3857–3863.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zilhão, J. (2007). The emergence of ornaments and art: An archaeological perspective on the origins of “behavioral modernity”. Journal of Archaeological Research, 15, 1–54.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

I thank S. Bar-David, G. Bar-Oz, O. Bar-Yosef, J. L. Clark, A. Belfer-Cohen, S. J. M. Davis, T. Dayan, P. Goldberg, N. Goren-Inbar, L. K. Horwitz, E. Hovers, S. Kuhn, L. Meignen, H. Monchot, E. Morin, N. Munro, J. F. O’Connell, R. Rabinovich, B. Shalmon, M. C. Stiner, A. Stutz, and the late E. Tchernov, as well as my anonymous reviewers, for their many very helpful suggestions in the development of the ideas presented here. Partial support for this research was received from the U.S.-Israel Binational Science Foundation, L. S. B. Leakey Foundation, National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship for University Teachers, Hebrew University (Jerusalem), and the University of Michigan’s Museum of Anthropology, Office of the Vice-President for Research, and Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-1079, USA

    John D. Speth

Authors
  1. John D. Speth
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to John D. Speth .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Anthropology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Arkansas, USA

    Jamie L. Clark

  2. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

    John D. Speth

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Speth, J.D. (2013). Middle Paleolithic Large-Mammal Hunting in the Southern Levant. In: Clark, J., Speth, J. (eds) Zooarchaeology and Modern Human Origins. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6766-9_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation