SpringerLink
Log in

Exercise and the Immune System

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Environmental Influences on the Immune System

Abstract

This chapter is divided into three major parts. The first part covers how exercise is associated with respiratory infection. Exercise’s effect on mucosal immunity, allergic rhinitis and airway inflammation is discussed as well as how certain viruses can affect respiratory infection risk in the athletic population. In the chapter’s second section, the influence of acute exercise on our immune system is explored. More specifically, the alterations in the innate immune system and acquired immune system in response to exercise and the mechanisms leading to these alterations are elucidated. Finally, the third part is on the effects of chronic exercise on the immune system. In this part, the beneficial anti-inflammatory effect of regular physical activity and health implication that this has on prevention and treatment of various diseases, which includes cancer, dementia, cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases, is discussed. In addition, the potential harmful effects of a high-intensity training period are also addressed. There is little research in these areas with resistance-type exercise, and unless stated otherwise, the studies mentioned here are with endurance-type exercise, such as running, rowing, cycling and swimming.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (Canada)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (Canada)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (Canada)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (Canada)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Akimoto T, Kumai Y, Akama T et al (2003) Effects of 12 months of exercise training on salivary secretory IgA levels in elderly subjects. Br J Sports Med 37:76–79

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Akira S, Hemmi H (2003) Recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns by TLR family. Immunol Lett 85(2):85–95

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Allgrove JE, Gomes E, Hough J, Gleeson M (2008) Effects of exercise intensity on salivary antimicrobial proteins and markers of stress in active men. J Sports Sci 26:653–661

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bate SL, Dollard SC, Cannon MJ (2010) Cytomegalovirus seroprevalence in the United States: the national health and nutrition examination surveys, 1988–2004. Clin Infect Dis 50(11):1439–1447

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bates DV (2005) Ambient ozone and mortality. Epidemiology 16(4):427–429

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beavers KM, Brinkley TE, Nicklas BJ (2010) Effect of exercise training on chronic inflammation. Clin Chim Acta 411(11–12):785–793

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Belda J, Ricart S, Casan P et al (2008) Airway inflammation in the elite athlete and type of sport. Br J Sports Med 42(4):244–248

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benshop RJ, Rodriguez-Feuerhahn M, Schedlowski M (1996) Catecholamine-induced leukocytosis: early observations, current research, and future directions. Brain Behav Immun 10:77–91

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop NC (2006) Acute exercise and acquired immune function. In: Gleeson M (ed) Immune function in sport and exercise, 1st edn. Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, Edinburgh, pp 91–113

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop NC, Gleeson M (2009) Acute and chronic effects of exercise on markers of mucosal immunity. Front Biosci 14:4444–4456

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop NC, Blannin AK, Armstrong E et al (2000) Carbohydrate and fluid intake affect the saliva flow rate and IgA response to cycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32:2046–2051

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop NC, Walsh N, Scanlon GA (2003) Effect of prolonged exercise and carbohydrate on total neutrophil elastase content. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35(8):1326–1332

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blannin AK (2006) Acute exercise and innate immune function. In: Gleeson M (ed) Immune function in sport and exercise, 1st edn. Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, Edinburgh, pp 67–89

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Blannin AK, Robson PJ, Walsh NP et al (1998) The effect of exercising to exhaustion at different intensities on saliva immunoglobulin A, protein and electrolyte secretion. Int J Sports Med 19:547–552

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blomberg A (2000) Airway inflammatory and antioxidant responses to oxidative and particulate air pollutants – experimental exposure studies in humans. Clin Exp Allergy 30:310–317

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bonsignore MR, Morici G, Riccobono L et al (2001) Airway inflammation in nonasthmatic amateur runners. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 281:668–676

    Google Scholar 

  • Booth S, Florida‐James G, McFarlin B (2010) The impact of acute strenuous exercise on TLR2, TLR4 and HLA.DR expression on human blood monocytes induced by autologous serum. Eur J Appl Physiol 110(6):1259–1268

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bosch JA, Ring C, de Geus EJC, Veerman ECI, Nieuw Amerogen AV (2002) Stress and secretory immunity. Int Rev Neurobiol 52:213–253

    Google Scholar 

  • Bougault V, Turmel J, St-Laurent J et al (2009) Asthma, airway inflammation and epithelial damage in swimmers and cold-air athletes. Eur Respir J 33(4):740–746

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bougault V, Turmel J, Boulet LP (2010) Bronchial challenges and respiratory symptoms in elite swimmers and winter sport athletes: airway hyperresponsiveness in asthma: its measurement and clinical significance. Chest 138:31S–37S

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boulet LP, Turcotte H, Langdeau JB, Bernier MC (2005a) Lower airway inflammatory responses to high-intensity training in athletes. Clin Invest Med 28(1):15–22

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boulet LP, Prince P, Turcotte H (2005b) Clinical features and airway inflammation in mild asthma versus asymptomatic airway hyperresponsiveness. Respir Med 100(2):292–299

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Britt W (2008) Manifestations of human cytomegalovirus infection: proposed mechanisms of acute and chronic disease. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 325:417–470

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown J, Wang H, Hajishengallis GN et al (2011) TLR-signaling Networks. J Dent Res 90(4):417–427

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brunekreef B, Holgatek ST (2002) Air pollution and health. Lancet 360:1233–1242

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Camous L, Roumenina L, Bigot S et al (2011) Complement alternative pathway acts as a positive feedback amplification of neutrophil activation. Blood 117(4):1340–1349

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carins J, Booth C (2002) Salivary immunoglobulin-A as a marker of stress during strenuous physical training. Aviat Space Environ Med 73:1203–1207

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chang CM, Yu KJ, Mbulaiteye SM et al (2009) The extent of genetic diversity of Epstein-Barr virus and its geographic and disease patterns: a need for reappraisal. Virus Res 143:209–221

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chatterton RT, Vogelsong KM, Lu YC et al (1996) Salivary alpha-amylase as a measure of endogenous adrenergic activity. Clin Physiol 16:433–448

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chicharro JL, Lucía A, Peréz M et al (1998) Saliva composition and exercise. Sports Med 26:17–27

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chinda D, Nakaji S, Umeda T et al (2003) A competitive marathon race decreases neutrophil functions in athletes. Luminescence 18(6):324–329

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chow CW, Abreu MTH, Suzuki T, Downey GP (2003) Oxidative stress and acute lung injury. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 29(4):427–431

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chung HY, Lee EK, Choi YJ et al (2011) Molecular inflammation as an underlying mechanism of the aging process and age-related diseases. J Dent Res 90(7):830–840

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cockcroft DW, Davis BE (2006) Mechanisms of airway hyperresponsiveness. J Allergy Clin Immunol 118:551–559

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coen PM, Flynn MG, Markofski MM et al (2010) Adding exercise to rosuvastatin treatment: influence on C-reactive protein, monocyte toll-like receptor 4 expression, and inflammatory monocyte (CD14+CD16+) population. Metabolism 59:1775–1783

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cox AJ, Gleeson M, Pyne DB et al (2004) Valtrex therapy for Epstein-Barr virus reactivation and upper respiratory symptoms in elite runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 36:1104–1110

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cox AJ, Gleeson M, Pyne DB et al (2008) Clinical and laboratory evaluation of upper respiratory symptoms in elite athletes. Clin J Sport Med 18:438–445

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • D'Alonzo GE Jr (2002) Scope and impact of allergic rhinitis. J Am Osteopath Assoc 102(6 Suppl 2):S2–S6

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Denguezli M, Chiekh IB, Saad HB (2008) One-year endurance training: effects on lung function and airway inflammation. J Sports Sci 26(12):1351–1359

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Discacciati A, Wolk A (2014) Lifestyle and dietary factors in prostate cancer prevention. Recent Results Cancer Res 202:27–37

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dykewicz MS, Hamilos DL (2010) Rhinitis and sinusitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 125(2 Suppl 2):S103–S115

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Engebretsen L, Steffen K, Alonso JM et al (2010) Sports injuries and illnesses during the Winter Olympic Games 2010. Br J Sports Med 44(11):772–780

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fahlman MM, Engels HJ (2005) Mucosal IgA and URTI in American college football players: a year longitudinal study. Med Sci Sports Exerc 37:374–380

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Febbraio MA, Pedersen BK (2002) Muscle-derived interleukin-6: mechanisms for activation and possible biological roles. FASEB J 16(11):1335–1347

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher-Wellman K, Bloomer RJ (2009) Acute exercise and oxidative stress: a 30 year history. Dyn Med 8(1):1–25

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flynn MG, McFarlin BK, Phillips MD et al (2003) Toll-like receptor 4 and CD14 mRNA expression are lower in resistive exercise-trained elderly women. J Appl Physiol 95:1833–1842

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Foster NK, Martyn JB, Rangno RE et al (1986) Leukocytosis of exercise: role of cardiac output and catecholamines. J Appl Physiol 61(6):2218–2223

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fry RW, Morton AR, Crawford GP, Keast D (1992) Cell numbers and in vitro responses of leucocytes and lymphocyte subpopulations following maximal exercise and interval training sessions of different intensities. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 64:218–227

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gabriel H, Urhausen A, Kindermann W (1991) Circulating leucocyte and lymphocyte subpopulations before and after intensive endurance exercise to exhaustion. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 63(6):449–457

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gabriel H, Urhausen A, Kindermann W (1992) Mobilization of circulating leucocyte and lymphocyte subpopulations during and after short, anaerobic exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 65(2):164–170

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Giraldo E, Garcia JJ, Hinchado MD, Ortega E (2009) Exercise intensity-dependent changes in the inflammatory response in sedentary women: role of neuroendocrine parameters in the neutrophil phagocytic process and the pro-/anti-inflammatory cytokine balance. Neuroimmunomodulation 16(4):237–244

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gkrania-Klotsas E, Langenberg C, Sharp SJ et al (2013) Seropositivity and higher immunoglobulin g antibody levels against cytomegalovirus are associated with mortality in the population-based European prospective investigation of Cancer-Norfolk cohort. Clin Infect Dis 56(10):1421–1427

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gleeson M (2006) Introduction to the immune system. In: Gleeson M (ed) Immune function in sport and exercise, 1st edn. Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, Edinburgh, pp 15–44

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gleeson M, Bishop NC (2005) The T cell and NK cell immune response to exercise. Ann Transplant 10(4):43–48

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gleeson M, Pyne DB (2000) Special feature for the Olympics: effects of exercise on the immune system: exercise effects on mucosal immunity. Immunol Cell Biol 78:536–544

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gleeson M, Robson-Ansley P (2006) Immune responses to intensified training and overtraining. In: Gleeson M (ed) Immune function in sport and exercise, 1st edn. Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, Edinburgh, pp 91–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Gleeson M, McDonald WA, Cripps AW et al (1995) The effect on immunity of long-term intensive training in elite swimmers. Clin Exp Immunol 102:210–216

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gleeson M, McDonald WA, Pyne DB et al (1999) Salivary IgA levels and infection risk in elite swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 31:67–73

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gleeson M, Pyne DB, Austin JP et al (2002) Epstein-Barr virus reactivation and upper-respiratory illness in elite swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34:411–417

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gleeson M, Pyne DB, Callister R (2004) The missing links in exercise effects on mucosal immunity. Exerc Immunol Rev 4:107–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Gleeson M, McFarlin B, Flynn M (2006) Exercise and Toll-like receptors. Exerc Immunol Rev 12:34–53

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gleeson M, Bishop NC, Stensel DJ et al (2011) The anti-inflammatory effects of exercise: mechanisms and implications for the prevention and treatment of disease. Nat Rev Immunol 11:607–615

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gomes EC, Stone V, Florida-James G (2010) Investigating performance and lung function in a hot, humid and ozone-polluted environment. Eur J Appl Physiol 110(1):199–205

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gomes EC, Stone V, Florida-James G (2011) Impact of heat and pollution on oxidative stress and CC16 secretion after 8 km run. Eur J Appl Physiol 111(9):2089–2097

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gomes EC, Silva AN, de Oliveira MR (2012) Oxidants, antioxidants, and the beneficial roles of exercise-induced production of reactive species. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2012:756132

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gomez-Cabrera MC, Domenech E, Viña J (2008) Moderate exercise is an antioxidant: upregulation of antioxidant genes by training. Free Radic Biol Med 44(2):126–131

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gratas-Delamarche A, Derbré F, Vincent S, Cillard J (2014) Physical inactivity, insulin resistance, and the oxidative-inflammatory loop. Free Radic Res 48(1):93–108

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hack V, Strobel G, Weiss M, Weicker H (1994) PMN cell counts on phagocytic activity of highly trained athletes depend on training period. J Appl Physiol 77(4):1731–1735

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC (2007) Free radicals in biology and medicine. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Helenius I, Lumme A, Haahtela T (2005) Asthma, airway inflammation and treatment in elite athletes. Sports Med 35(7):565–574

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heymann EP, Goldsmith D (2012) Best approaches in the battle against Globesity? Learning lessons from our experience tackling HIV-AIDS and tobacco smoking. JRSM Short Rep 3(7):45

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hochberg D, Souza T, Catalina M et al (2004) Acute infection with Epstein-Barr virus targets and overwhelms the peripheral memory B-cell compartment with resting, latently infected cells. J Virol 78(10):5194–5204

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman-Goetz L, Simpson JR, Cipp N et al (1990) Lymphocyte subset responses to repeated submaximal exercise in men. J Appl Physiol 68(3):1069–1074

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • IARC (2002) Handbooks of cancer prevention. In: Weight control and physical activity, vol 6. IARC press, Lyon

    Google Scholar 

  • Jarvis MA, Nelson JA (2002) Mechanisms of human cytomegalovirus persistence and latency. Front Biosci 7:d1575–d1582

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kakanis MW, Peake J, Brenu EW et al (2010) The open window of susceptibility to infection after acute exercise in healthy young male elite athletes. Exerc Immunol Rev 16:119–137

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kappel M, Tvede N, Galbo H et al (1991) Evidence that the effect of physical exercise on NK cell activity is mediated by epinephrine. J Appl Physiol 70:2530–2534

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kivlighan KT, Granger DA (2006) Salivary alpha-amylase response to competition: Relation to gender, previous experience, and attitudes. Psychoneuroendocrinology 31:703–714

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klentrou P, Cieslak T, MacNeil M et al (2002) Effect of moderate exercise on salivary immunoglobulin A and infection risk in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 87:153–158

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koch A (2010) Immune response to resistance exercise. Am J Lifestyle Med 4:244–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kostka T, Berthouze SE, Lacour J, Bonnefoy M (2000) The symptomatology of upper respiratory tract infections and exercise in elderly people. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32(1):46–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lamm ME (1998) Current concepts in mucosal immunity IV. How epithelial transport of IgA antibodies relates to host defense. Am J Physiol 274:G614–G617

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lancaster GI, Halson SL, Khan Q et al (2004) Effects of acute exhaustive exercise and chronic exercise training on type 1 and type 2 T lymphocytes. Exerc Immunol Rev 10:91–106

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lancaster GI, Khan Q, Drysdale P et al (2005a) The physiological regulation of toll-like receptor expression and function in humans. J Physiol 563(3):945–955

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lancaster GI, Khan Q, Drysdale PT et al (2005b) Effect of prolonged exercise and carbohydrate ingestion on type 1 and type 2 T lymphocyte distribution and intracellular cytokine production in humans. J Appl Physiol 98(2):565–571

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Langdeau JB, Turcotte H, Bowie DM et al (2000) Airway hyperresponsiveness in elite athletes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 161(5):1479–1484

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee I, Oguma Y (2006) Physical activity. In: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni JF (eds) Cancer epidemiology and prevention, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee S, Kuk JL, Davidson LE et al (2005) Exercise without weight loss is an effective strategy for obesity reduction in obese individuals with and without Type 2 diabetes. J Appl Physiol 99:1220–1225

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leggate M, Nowell MA, Jones SA, Nimmo MA (2010) The response of interleukin-6 and soluble interleukin-6 receptor isoforms following intermittent high intensity and continuous moderate intensity cycling. Cell Stress Chaperones 15(6):827–833

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewicki R, Tchórzewski H, Denys A et al (1987) Effect of physical exercise on some parameters of immunity in conditioned sportsmen. Int J Sports Med 8(5):309–314

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li TL, Gleeson M (2004) The effect of single and repeated bouts of prolonged cycling and circadian variation on saliva flow rate, immunoglobulin A and alpha-amylase responses. J Sports Sci 22:1015–1024

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Libicz S, Mercier B, Bigou N, Le Gallais D, Castex F (2006) Salivary IgA response of triathletes participating in the French Iron Tour. Int J Sports Med 27(5):389–394

    Google Scholar 

  • Matthews CE, Ockene IS, Freedson PS et al (2002) Moderate to vigorous physical activity and risk of upper-respiratory tract infection. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34(8):1242–1248

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy DA, Dale MM (1998) The leucocytosis of exercise. A review and model. Sports Med 6(6):333–363

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy DA, Macdonald I, Grant M et al (1992) Studies on the immediate and delayed leucocytosis elicited by brief (30-min) strenuous exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 64:513–517

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McFarlin BK, Flynn MG, Stewart LK, Timmerman KL (2004a) Carbohydrate intake during endurance exercise increases natural killer cell responsiveness to IL-2. J Appl Physiol 96(1):271–275

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McFarlin BK, Flynn MG, Campbell WW et al (2004b) TLR4 is lower in resistance-trained older women and related to inflammatory cytokines. Med Sci Sports Exerc 36(11):1876–1883

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miles MP, Kraemer WJ, Nindl BC et al (2003) Strength, workload, anaerobic intensity and the immune response to resistance exercise in women. Acta Physiol Scand 178(2):155–163

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mooren FC, Blöming D, Lechtermann A et al (2002) Lymphocyte apoptosis after exhaustive and moderate exercise. J Appl Physiol 93(1):147–153

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morice G, Bonsignore MR, Zangala D et al (2004) Airway cell composition at rest and after an all-out test in competitive runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 36(10):1723–1729

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy EA, Davis JM, Brown AS et al (2004) Effects of moderate exercise and oat beta-glucan on lung tumor metastases and macrophage antitumor cytotoxicity. J Appl Physiol 97(3):955–959

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naci H, Ioannidis JP (2013) Comparative effectiveness of exercise and drug interventions on mortality outcomes: metaepidemiological study. BMJ 347:f5577

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nair S (2012) Nasal breathing exercise and its effect on symptoms of allergic rhinitis. Indian J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 64(2):172–176

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nater UM, La Marca R, Florin L et al (2006) Stress-induced changes in human salivary alpha-amylase activity - associations with adrenergic activity. Psychoneuroendocrinology 31:49–58

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Neville V, Gleeson M, Folland JP (2008) Salivary IgA as a risk factor for upper respiratory infections in elite professional athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 40:1228–1236

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen HQ, Chu L, Liu IL et al (2014) Associations between physical activity and 30-Day readmission risk in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann Am Thorac Soc 11(5):695–705

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nieman DC (1994) Exercise, infection and immunity. Int J Sports Med 15:S131–S141

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nieman DC (2000) Is infection risk linked to exercise workload? Med Sci Sports Exerc 32:S406–S411

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nieman DC, Bishop NC (2006) Nutritional strategies to counter stress to the immune system in athletes, with special reference to football. J Sports Sci 24(7):763–772

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nieman DC, Nehlsen-Cannarella SL, Markoff PA et al (1990) The effects of moderate exercise training on natural killer cells and acute upper respiratory tract infections. Int J Sports Med 11(6):467–473

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nieman DC, Miller AR, Henson DA et al (1993) Effects of high- vs moderate-intensity exercise on natural killer cell activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25(10):1126–1134

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nieman DC, Nehlsen-Cannarella SL, Fagoaga OR et al (1998) Effects of mode and carbohydrate on the granulocyte and monocyte response to intensive, prolonged exercise. J Appl Physiol 84(4):1252–1259

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nieman DC, Henson DA, Fagoaga OR et al (2002) Change in salivary IgA following a competitive marathon race. Int J Sports Med 23:69–75

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Niess AM, Simon P (2007) Response and adaptation of skeletal muscle to exercise—the role of reactive oxygen species. Front Biosci 12:4826–4838

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nimmo MA, Leggate M, Viana JL, King JA (2013) The effect of physical activity on mediators of inflammation. Diabetes Obes Metab 15(Suppl 3):51–60

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Okutsu M, Suzuki K, Ishijima T et al (2008) The effects of acute exercise-induced cortisol on CCR2 expression on human monocytes. Brain Behav Immun 22(7):1066–1071

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oliveira-Child M, Leggate M, Gleeson M (2013) Effects of two weeks of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on monocyte TLR2 and TLR4 expression in high BMI sedentary Men. Int J Exerc Sci 6:81–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Ortega E, Collazos ME, Maynar M et al (1993) Stimulation of the phagocytic function of neutrophils in sedentary men after acute moderate exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 66(1):60–64

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ortega E, Forner MA, Barriga C (1997) Exercise-induced stimulation of murine macrophage chemotaxis: role of corticosterone and prolactin as mediators. J Physiol 498(Pt 3):729–734

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ortega E, Marchena JM, García JJ et al (2005) Norepinephrine as mediator in the stimulation of phagocytosis induced by moderate exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 93(5–6):714–718

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ostrowski K, Rohde T, Zacho M et al (1998) Evidence that IL-6 is produced in skeletal muscle during intense long-term muscle activity. J Physiol 508:949–953

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ostrowski K, Rohde T, Asp S et al (2001) Chemokines are elevated in plasma after strenuous exercise. Eur J Cell Physiol 84:244–245

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palmer FM, Nieman DC, Henson DA et al (2003) Influence of vitamin C supplementation on oxidative and salivary IgA changes following an ultramarathon. Eur J Appl Physiol 89:100–107

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peake JM (2002) Exercise-induced alterations in neutrophil degranulation and respiratory burst activity: possible mechanisms of action. Exerc Immunol Rev 8:49–100

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peake J, Suzuki K (2004) Neutrophil activation, antioxidant supplements and exercise induced oxidative stress. Exerc Immunol Rev 10:129–141

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen L (2009) Airway hyperresponsiveness and airway inflammation in elite swimmers. Clin Respir J 3(1):62

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen BK, Fischer CP (2007) Beneficial health effects of exercise–the role of IL-6 as a myokine. Trends Pharmacol Sci 28(4):152–156

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen BK, Bruunsgaard H, Klokker M et al (1997) Exercise-induced immunomodulation – possible roles of neuroendocrine and metabolic factors. Int J Sports Med 18(Suppl 1):S2–S7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen BK, Steensberg A, Schjerling P (2001) Muscle-derived interleukin-6: possible biological effects. J Physiol 536(Pt 2):329–337

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peel JB, Sui X, Adams SA et al (2009a) A prospective study of cardiorespiratory fitness and breast cancer mortality. Med Sci Sports Exerc 41(4):742–748

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peel JB, Sui X, Matthews CE et al (2009b) Cardiorespiratory fitness and digestive cancer mortality: findings from the aerobics center longitudinal study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 18(4):1111–1117

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Proctor GB, Garrett JR, Carpenter GH, Ebersole LE (2003) Salivary secretion of immunoglobulin A by submandibular glands in response to autonomimetic infusions in anaesthetised rats. J Neuroimmunol 136:17–24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pue CA, Mortensen RF, Marsh CB et al (1996) Acute phase levels of C-reactive protein enhance IL-1 beta and IL-1ra production by human blood monocytes but inhibit IL-1 beta and IL-1ra production by alveolar macrophages. J Immunol 156:1594–1600

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pyne DB (1994) Regulation of neutrophil function during exercise. Sports Med 17(4):245–258

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pyne DB, Baker MS, Fricker PA et al (1995) Effects of an intensive 12-wk training program by elite swimmers on neutrophil oxidative activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 27:536–542

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pyne D, McDonald W, Gleeson M et al (1999) Mucosal immunity, respiratory illness, and competitive performance in elite swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 33:348–353

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pyne DB, Gleeson M, McDonald WA et al (2000) Training strategies to maintain immunocompetence in athletes. Int J Sports Med 21(suppl 1):S51–S60

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radák Z, Apor P, Pucsok J et al (2003) Marathon running alters the DNA base excision repair in human skeletal muscle. Life Sci 72(14):1627–1633

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radak Z, Chung HY, Goto S (2008) Systemic adaptation to oxidative challenge induced by regular exercise. Free Radic Biol Med 44(2):153–159

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reid VL, Gleeson M, Williams N, Clancy RL (2004) Clinical investigation of athletes with persistent fatigue and/or recurrent infections. Br J Sports Med 38:42–45

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts ET, Haan MN, Dowd JB, Aiello AE (2010) Cytomegalovirus antibody levels, inflammation, and mortality among elderly Latinos over 9 years of follow-up. Am J Epidemiol 172(4):363–371

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robson PJ, Blannin AK, Walsh NP et al (1999) Effects of exercise intensity, duration and recovery on in vitro neutrophil function in male athletes. Int J Sports Med 20(2):128–135

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez AB, Barriga C, De la Fuente M (1991) Phagocytic function of blood neutrophils in sedentary Young people after physical exercise. Int J Sports Med 12(3):276–280

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roitt IM, Delves PJ (2001) Roitt’s essential immunology, 10th edn. Blackwell Science, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruedl G, Schobersberger W, Pocecco E et al (2012) Sport injuries and illnesses during the first Winter Youth Olympic Games 2012 in Innsbruck, Austria. Br J Sports Med 46(15):1030–1037

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sand KL, Flatebo T, Andersen MB et al (2013) Effects of exercise on leukocytosis and blood hemostasis in 800 healthy young females and males. World J Exp Med 3(1):11–20

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sarin S, Undem B, Sanico A et al (2006) The role of the nervous system in rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 118(5):999–1016

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sari-Sarraf V, Reilly T, Doran DA (2006) Salivary IgA response to intermittent and continuous exercise. Int J Sports Med 27:849–855

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scannapieco FA, Torres G, Levine MJ (1993) Salivary alpha-amylase: role in dental plaque and caries formation. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 4:301–307

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scharhag J, Meyer T, Gabriel HH et al (2005) Does prolonged cycling of moderate intensity affect immune cell function? Br J Sports Med 39(3):171–177

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schenkels LC, Veerman EC, Nieuw Amerongen AV (1995) Biochemical composition of human saliva in relation to other mucosal fluids. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 6:161–175

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sen CK, Roy S (2001) Antioxidant regulation of cell adhesion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 33(3):377–381

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shephard RJ (2003) Adhesion molecules, catecholamines and leucocyte redistribution during and following exercise. Sports Med 33(4):261–284

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shephard RJ, Shek PN (1999) Effects of exercise and training on natural killer cell counts and cytolytic activity: a meta-analysis. Sports Med 28:177–195

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simanek AM, Dowd JB, Pawelec G et al (2011) Seropositivity to cytomegalovirus, inflammation, all-cause and cardiovascular disease-related mortality in the United States. PLoS One 6(2), e16103

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson RJ, Florida-James GD, Whyte PG et al (2006) The effects of intensive, moderate and downhill treadmill running on human blood lymphocytes expressing the adhesion/activation molecules CD54 (ICAM-1), CD18 (B2 integrin) and CD53. Eur J Appl Physiol 97:109–121

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson RJ, McFarlin BK, McSporran C et al (2009) Toll-like receptor expression on classic and pro-inflammatory blood monocytes after acute exercise in humans. Brain Behav Immun 23(2):232–239

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Slattery ML (2004) Physical activity and colorectal cancer. Sports Med 34(4):239–252

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith LL (2000) Cytokine hypothesis of overtraining: a physiological adaptation to excessive stress? Med Sci Sports Exerc 32:317–331

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spence L, Brown WJ, Pyne DB et al (2007) Incidence, etiology, and symptomatology of upper respiratory illness in elite athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 39(4):577–586

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Starkie RL, Rolland J, Febbraio MA (2001a) Effect of adrenergic blockade on lymphocyte cytokine production at rest and during exercise. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 281(4):C1233–C1240

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Starkie RL, Rolland J, Angus DJ et al (2001b) Circulating monocytes are not the source of elevations in plasma IL-6 and TNF-alpha levels. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 280(4):C769–C774

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steensberg A, Morrow J, Toft AD et al (2002) Prolonged exercise, lymphocyte apoptosis and F2-isoprostanes. Eur J Appl Physiol 87:38–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Steerenberg PA, van Asperen IA, van Nieuw AA et al (1997) Salivary levels of immunoglobulin A in triathletes. Eur J Oral Sci 105:305–309

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart LK, Flynn MG, Campbell WW et al (2005) Influence of exercise training and age on CD14+ cell-surface expression of toll-like receptor 2 and 4. Brain Behav Immun 19:389–397

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sui X, Lee DC, Matthews CE et al (2010) Influence of cardiorespiratory fitness on lung cancer mortality. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42(5):872–878

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sureda A, Cordova A, Ferrer MD et al (2009) Effects of L-citrulline oral supplementation on polymorphonuclear neutrophils oxidative burst and nitric oxide production after exercise. Free Radic Res 43(9):828–835

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Suzui M, Kawai T, Kimura H, Takeda K et al (2004) Natural killer cell lytic activity and CD56(dim) and CD56(bright) cell distributions during and after intensive training. J Appl Physiol 96:2167–2173

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Syu GD, Chen HI, Jen CJ (2012) Differential effects of acute and chronic exercise on human neutrophil functions. Med Sci Sports Exerc 44(6):1021–1027

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thorley-Lawson DA, Gross A (2004) Persistence of the Epstein-Barr virus and the origins of associated lymphomas. N Engl J Med 350:1328–1337

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thorley-Lawson DA, Hawkins JB, Tracy SI et al (2013) The pathogenesis of Epstein-Barr vírus persistent infection. Curr Opin Virol 3(3):227–232

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tilg H, Dinarello CA, Mier JW (1997) IL-6 and APPs: anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive mediators. Immunol Today 18:428–432

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Timmerman KL, Flynn MG, Coen PM et al (2008) Exercise training-induced lowering of inflammatory (CD14+CD16+) monocytes: a role in the anti-inflammatory influence of exercise? J Leukoc Biol 84:1271–1278

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Timmons BW, Cieslak T (2008) Human natural killer cell subsets and acute exercise: a brief review. Exerc Immunol Rev 14:8–23

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tongtako W, Klaewsongkram J, Jaronsukwimal N et al (2012) The effect of acute exhaustive and moderate intensity exercises on nasal cytokine secretion and clinical symptoms in allergic rhinitis patients. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol 30(3):185–192

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Toussirot E, Roudier J (2008) Epstein–Barr virus in autoimmune diseases. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 22(5):883–896

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tvede N, Kappel M, Klarlund K et al (1994) Evidence that the effect of bicycle exercise on blood mononuclear cell proliferative responses and subsets is mediated by epinephrine. Int J Sports Med 15(2):100–104

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh NP, Blannin AK, Clark AM et al (1999) The effects of high-intensity intermittent exercise on saliva IgA, total protein and alpha-amylase. J Sports Sci 17:129–134

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh NP, Gleeson M, Shephard RJ et al (2011) Position statement. Part one: immune function and exercise. Exerc Immunol Rev 17:6–63

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • West NP, Pyne DB, Renshaw G et al (2006) Antimicrobial peptides and proteins, exercise and innate mucosal immunity. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 48:293–304

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • West NP, Pyne DB, Kyd JM et al (2010) The effect of exercise on innate mucosal immunity. Br J Sports Med 44:227–231

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wiggins MS, Simonavice EM (2009) Quality of life benefits in cancer survivorship with supervised exercise. Psychol Rep 104(2):421–424

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson DO, Johnson P (2000) Exercise modulates antioxidant enzyme gene expression in rat myocardium and liver. J Appl Physiol 88(5):1791–1796

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wood IS, de Heredia FP, Wang B et al (2009) Cellular hypoxia and adipose tissue dysfunction in obesity. Proc Nutr Soc 68:370–377

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Woods JA, Ceddia MA, Kozak C et al (1997) Effects of exercise on the macrophage MHC II response to inflammation. Int J Sports Med 18:483–488

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Woods JA, Evans JK, Wolters BW et al (1998) Effects of maximal exercise on natural killer (NK) cell cytotoxicity and responsiveness to interferon-alpha in the young and old. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 53:B430–B437

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Woods JA, Ceddia MA, Wolters BW et al (1999) Effects of 6 months of moderate aerobic exercise training on immune function in the elderly. Mech Ageing Dev 109:1–19

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (2012) World Health Statistics 2012. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/44844/1/9789241564441_eng.pdf?ua=1&ua=1Assessed. Accessed 7 Jan 2012

  • Yoda K, Sata T, Kurata T et al (2000) Oropharyngotonsillitis associated with nonprimary Epstein-Barr virus infection. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 126:185–193

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Life, Sport and Social Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, UK

    Elisa Couto Gomes & Geraint Florida-James

Authors
  1. Elisa Couto Gomes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Geraint Florida-James
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Geraint Florida-James .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Düsseldorf, IUF–Leibniz Res Inst for Env Med, Düsseldorf, Germany

    Charlotte Esser

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer-Verlag Wien

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Gomes, E.C., Florida-James, G. (2016). Exercise and the Immune System. In: Esser, C. (eds) Environmental Influences on the Immune System. Springer, Vienna. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-1890-0_6

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation