SpringerLink
Log in

Osteoporosis: Pathophysiology and Clinical Aspects

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Principles of Osteoimmunology

  • 570 Accesses

Abstract

Osteoporosis has become a major health issue over the last years due to the steadily increasing life expectancy. Osteoporosis is estimated to affect 75 million people in the United States, Europe, and Japan and about 200 million women worldwide – approximately one-tenth of women aged 60, one-fifth of women aged 70, two-fifths of women aged 80, and two-thirds of women aged 90. Worldwide, one in three women over age 50 will experience osteoporotic fractures and one in five men aged over 50. Overall, 61 % of osteoporotic fractures occur in women, with a female-to-male ratio of 1.6 (Johnell and Kanis 2006).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
EUR 29.95
Price includes VAT (Spain)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
EUR 117.69
Price includes VAT (Spain)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
EUR 155.99
Price includes VAT (Spain)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
EUR 155.99
Price includes VAT (Spain)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alnaeeli M, Park J, Mahamed D, Penninger JM, Teng YT (2007) Dendritic cells at the osteoimmune interface: implications for inflammation-induced bone loss. J Bone Miner Res 22:775–780

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anastasilakis AD, Goulis DG, Polyzos SA, Gerou S, Koukoulis G, Kita M, Avramidis A (2008) Serum osteoprotegerin and RANKL are not specifically altered in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis treated with teriparatide or risedronate: a randomized, controlled trial. Horm Metab Res 40:281–285

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arron JR, Choi Y (2000) Bone versus immune system. Nature 408:535–536

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bengmark S (2004) Acute and “chronic” phase reaction-a mother of disease. Clin Nutr 23:1256–1266

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bertoldo F, Pancheri S, Zenari S, Boldini S, Giovanazzi B, Zanatta M, Valenti MT, Dalle Carbonare L, Lo Cascio V (2010) Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels modulate the acute-phase response associated with the first nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate infusion. J Bone Miner Res 25:447–454

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boyle WJ, Simonet WS, Lacey DL (2003) Osteoclast differentiation and activation. Nature 423:337–342

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brennan TC, Rybchyn MS, Green W, Atwa S, Conigrave AD, Mason RS (2009) Osteoblasts play key roles in the mechanisms of action of strontium ranelate. Br J Pharmacol 157:1291–1300

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Breuil V, Ticchioni M, Testa J, Roux CH, Ferrari P, Breittmayer JP, Albert-Sabonnadière C, Durant J, De Perreti F, Bernard A, Euller-Ziegler L, Carle GF (2010) Immune changes in postmenopausal osteoporosis: the Immunos study. Osteoporos Int 21:805–814

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calvi LM, Sims NA, Hunzelman JL, Knight MC, Giovannetti A, Saxton JM, Kronenberg HM, Baron R, Schipani E (2001) Activated parathyroid hormone/parathyroid hormone-related protein receptor in osteoblastic cells differentially affects cortical and trabecular bone. J Clin Invest 107:277–286

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Calvi LM, Adams GB, Weibrecht KW et al (2003) Osteoblastic cells regulate the haematopoietic stem cell niche. Nature 425:841–846

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cheroutre H (2004) Starting at the beginning: new perspectives on the biology of mucosal T cells. Annu Rev Immunol 22:217–246

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Christiansen C, Christiansen MS, Transbol I (1981) Bone mass in postmenopausal women after withdrawal of oestrogen/gestagen replacement therapy. Lancet 1:459–461

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clowes JA, Riggs BL, Khosla S (2005) The role of the immune system in the pathophysiology of osteoporosis. Immunol Rev 208:207–227

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colin EM, Asmawidjaja PS, van Hamburg JP, Mus AM, van Driel M, Hazes JM, van Leeuwen JP, Lubberts E (2010) 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 modulates Th17 polarization and interleukin-22 expression by memory T cells from patients with early rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 62:132–142

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cosman F, Shen V, **e F, Seibel M, Ratcliffe A, Lindsay R (1993) Estrogen protection against bone resorbing effects of parathyroid hormone infusion. Ann Intern Med 118:337–343

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • D’Amelio P, Gnmaldi A, Di Bella S, Tamone C, Brianza SZ, Ravazzoli MG, Bernabei P, Cristo-faro MA, Pescmona GP, Isaia G (2008) Risedronate reduces osteoclast precursors and cytokine production in postmenopausal osteoporotic women. J Bone Miner Res 23:373–379

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • D’Amelio P, Grimaidi A, Cristofaro MA, Ravazzoli M, Molinatti PA, Pescarmona GP, Isaia GC (2010) Alendronate reduces osteoclast precursors in osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 21:1741–1750

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dundar U, Kavuncu V, Cifici IH, Evcik D, Solak O, Cakir T (2009) The effect of risedronate treatment on serum cytokines in postmenopausal osteoporosis: a 6-month randomized and controlled study. J Bone Miner Metab 27:464–470

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eghbali-Fatourechi G, Khosla S, Sanyal A, Boyle WJ, Lacey DI, Riggs BL (2003) Role of RANK ligand in mediating increased bone resorption in early postmenopausal women. J Clin Invest 111:1120–1122

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksen EF, Colvard DS, Berg NJ, Graham ML, Mann KG, Spelsberg TC, Riggs BL (1988) Evidence of estrogen receptors in normal human osteoblast like cells. Science 241:84–86

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández-García D, Muñoz-Torres M, Mezquita-Raya P, de la Higuera M, Alonso G, Reyes-García R, Ochoa AS, Ruiz-Requena ME, Luna JD, Escobar-Jiménez F (2008) Effects of raloxifene therapy on circulating osteoprotegerin and RANK ligand levels in post-menopausal osteoporosis. J Endocrinol Invest 31:416–421

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Franceschi C, Bonafè M, Valensin S, Olivieri F, Da Luca M, Ottaviani E, De Benedictitis G (2000) Inflammaging. An evolutionary perspective on immunosenescence. Ann N Y Acad Sci 908:24–254

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaffen SL, Hajishengallis G (2008) A new inflammatory cytokine on the block: re-thinking periodontal disease and the Th1/Th2 paradigm in the context of Th17 cells and IL-17. J Dent Res 87:817–828

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher JC, Riggs BL, Eisman J, Hamstra A, Arnaud SB, DeLuca HF (1979) Intestinal calcium absorption and serum vitamin D metabolites in normal subjects and osteoporotic patients: effects of age and dietary calcium. J Clin Invest 64:729–736

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gao Y, Grassi F, Ryan MR, Terauchi M, Page K, Yang X, Weitzmann MN, Pacifici R (2007) IFN-γ stimulates osteoclast formation and bone loss in vivo via antigen-driven T cell activation. J Clin Invest 117:12–132

    Google Scholar 

  • Geijtenbeek TB, van Vliet SJ, Engering A, ‘t Hart BA, van Kooyk Y (2004) Self- and nonself-recognition by C-type lectins on dendritic cells. Annu Rev Immunol 22:33–54

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gennari C, Agnusdei D, Nardi P, Civitelli R (1990) Estrogen preserves a normal intestinal responsiveness to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D 3 in oophorectomized women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 71:1288–1293

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ghishan FK, Kiela PR (2011) Advances in the understanding of mineral and bone metabolism in inflammatory bowel diseases. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 300:G191–G201

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giangregorio LM, Jantzi M, Papaioannou A, Hirdes J, Maxwell CJ, Poss JW (2009) Osteoporosis management among residents living in long-term care. Osteoporos Int 20:1471–1478

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gianni W, Ricci A, Gazzaniga P, Brama M, Pietropaolo M, Votano S, Patanè F, Aglianò AM, Spera G, Marigliano V, Ammendola S, Agnusdei D, Migliaccio S, Scandurra R (2004) Raloxifene modulates interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha synthesis in vivo: results from a pilot clinical study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:6097–6099

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haaland DA, Cohen DR, Kennedy CC, Khalidi NA, Adachi JD, Papaioannou A (2009) Closing the osteoporosis care gap: increased osteoporosis awareness among geriatrics and rehabilitation teams. BMC Geriatr 9:28. doi:10.1186/1471-2318-9-28

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Häussler B, Gothe H, Göl D, Glaeske G, Pientka L, Felsenberg D (2007) Epidemiology, treatment and costs of osteoporosis in Germany – the Bone EVA Study. Osteoporos Int 18:77–84

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heaney RP, Recker RR, Saville PD (1978) Menopause changes in calcium balance performance. J Lab Clin Med 92:953–963

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnell O, Kanis JA (2006) An estimate of the worldwide prevalence and disability associated with osteoporotic fractures. Osteoporos Int 17:1726

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones DH, Kong YY, Penninger JM (2002) Role of RANKL and RANK in bone loss and arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 61(Suppl):ii32–ii39

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Josien R, Wong BR, Li HL, Steinman RM, Choi Y (1999) TRANCE, a TNF family member, is differentially expressed on T cell subsets and induces cytokine production in dendritic cells. J Immunol 162:2562–2568

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kamal HK (2005) Secondary prevention of hip fractures among hospitalized elderly: are we doing enough? J Clin Rheumatol 11:68–71

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katz S, Weinerman S (2010) Osteoporosis and gastrointestinal disease. Gastroenterol Hepatol (N Y) 6:506–517

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim SW, Her SJ, Kim SY, Shin CS (2005) Ectopic overexpression of adipogenic transcription factors induces transdifferentiation of MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 327:811–819

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Komm BS, Terpening CM, Benz DJ, Graeme KA, O’Malley BW, Haussler MR (1988) Estrogen binding receptor mRNA, and biologic response in osteoblast-like osteosarcoma cells. Science 241:81–84

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Konnopka A, Jerusel N, König HH (2009) The health and economic consequences of osteopenia- and osteoporosis-attributable hip fractures in Germany: estimation for 2002 and projection until 2050. Osteoporos Int 20:1117–1129

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krum SA, Miranda-Carboni GA, Hauschka PV, Carroll JS, Lane TF, Freedman LP, Brown M (2008) Estrogen protects bone by inducing Fas ligand in osteoblasts to regulate osteoclast survival. EMBO J 27:535–545

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kwak HB, Kirn JY, Kim KJ, Choi MK, Kim JJ, Kirn KM, Shin YI, Lee MS, Kim HS, Kim JW, Chun CH, Cho HJ, Hong GY, Juhng SK, Yoon KH, Park BH, Bae JM, Han JK, Oh J (2009) Risedronate directly inhibits osteoclast differentiation and inflammatory bone loss. Biol Pharm Bull 32:1193–1198

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lecka-Cernik B, Moerman EJ, Grant DF, Lehmann JM, Manolagas SC, Jilka RL (2002) Divergent effects of selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma 2 ligands on adipocyte versus osteoblast differentiation. Endocrinology 143:2376–2384

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewiecki EM, Miller PD, McClung MR, Cohen SB, Bolognese MA, Liu Y, Wang A, Siddhanti S, Fitzpatrick LA, AMG 162 Bone Loss Study Group (2007) Two-year treatment with denosumab (AMG 162) in a randomized phase 2 study of postmenopausal women with low BMD. J Bone Miner Res 22:1832–1841

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li Y, Toraldo G, Li A, Yang X, Zhang H, Qian WP, Weitzmann MN (2007) B cells and T cells are critical for the preservation of bone homeostasis and attainment of peak bone mass in vivo. Blood 109:3839–3848

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Li Z, Lu WW, Chiu PK, Lam RW, Xu B, Cheung KM, Leong JC, Luk KD (2009) Strontium-calcium coadministration stimulates bone matrix osteogenic factor expression and new bone formation in a large animal model. J Orthop Res 27:758–762

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lim MJ, Kwon SR, Park SG, Park W (2010) Acute effects of intravenous administration of pamidronate in patients with osteoporosis. J Korean Med Sci 25:1277–1283

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lohmann R, Haid K, Stöckle U, Raschke M (2007) Epidemiologie und Perspektiven der Alters traumatologie [Epidemiology and perspectives in traumatology of the elderly] Unfallchirurg. 110:553–560

    Google Scholar 

  • Manabe N, Kawaguchi H, Chikuda H, Miyaura C, Inada M, Nagai R, Nabeshima Y, Nakamura K, Sinclair AM, Scheuermann RH, Kuro-o M (2001) Connection between B lymphocyte and osteoclast differentiation pathways. J Immunol 167:2625–2631

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McKane WR, Khosla S, Burritt MF, Kao PC, Wilson DM, Ory SJ, Riggs BL (1995) Mechanism of renal calcium conservation with estrogen replacement therapy in women in early menopause – a clinical research center study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:3458–3464

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Messalli EM, Mainini G, Scaffa C, Cafiero A, Salzillo PL, Ragucci A, Cobellis L (2007) Raloxifene therapy interacts with serum osteoprotegerin in postmenopausal women. Maturitas 56:38–44

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Metge CJ, Leslie WD, Manness LJ, Yogendran M, Yuen CK, Kvern B, Maximizing Osteoporosis Management in Manitoba Steering Committee (2008) Postfracture care for older women: gaps between optimal care and actual care. Can Fam Physician 54:1270–1276

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Miyamoto T, Ohnada O, Arai F, Iwamoto K, Okada S, Tagagi K, Anderson DM, Suda T (2001) Bifurcation of osteoclasts and dendritic cells from common progenitors. Blood 98:2544–2554

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Narayana Murthy PS, Sengupta S, Sharma S, Singh MM (2006) Effect of ormeloxifene on ovariectomy-induced bone resorption, osteoclast differentiation and apoptosis and TGF beta-3 expression. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 100:117–128

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen OH, Vainer B, Madsen SM, Seidelin JB, Heegaard NH (2000) Established and emerging biological activity markers of inflammatory bowel disease. Am J Gastroenterol 95:359–367

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • NIH Consensus Development Panel on Osteoporosis Prevention, Diagnosis, and Therapy (2001) Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis, and therapy. JAMA 285:785–795

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ohlsson C, Sjögren K (2015) Effects of the gut microbiota on bone mass. Trends Endocrinol Metab 26:69–74. doi:10.1016/j.tern2014.11.004

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oursler MI, Osdoby P, Pyfferoen J, Riggs BL, Spelsberg TC (1998) Avian osteoclasts as estrogen target cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 88:6613–6617

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ozmen B, Kirmaz C, Aydin K, Kafesciler SO, Guclu F, Hekimsoy Z (2007) Influence of the selective oestrogen receptor modulator (raloxifene hydrochloride) on IL-6, TNF-alpha, TGF-beta1 and bone turnover markers in the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Eur Cytokine Netw 18:148–153

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pacifici R (2007) T cells and post menopausal osteoporosis in murine models. Arthritis Res Ther 9:102

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pacifici R (2008) Estrogen deficiency, T cells and bone loss. Cell Immunol 252:68–80

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Papaioannou A, Kennedy CC, Ioannidis G, CaMos Research Group et al (2008) The osteoporosis care gap in men with fragility fractures: the Canadian Multicentre Osteoporosis Study. Osteoporos Int 19:581–587

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pene J, Chevalier S, Preisser L, Venereau E, Guilleux MH, Ghannam S, Moles JP, Danger Y, Ravon E, Lesaux S, Yssel H, Gascan H (2008) Chronically inflamed human tissue are infiltrated by highly differentiated Th17 lymphocytes. J Immunol 180:7423–7430

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pepene CE, Seck T, Diel I, Minne HW, Ziegler R, Pfeilschifter J (2004) Influence of fluor salts, hormone replacement therapy and calcitonin on the concentration of insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, IGF-II and transforming growth factor-beta 1 in human iliac crest bone matrix from patients with primary osteoporosis. Eur J Endocrinol 150:81–91

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pietschmann P, Grisar J, Thien R, Willhelm M, Kerschan-Schindl K, Preisinger E, Peter-lik M (2001) Immune phenotype and intracellular cytokine production of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from postmenopausal patients with osteoporotic fractures. Exp Gerontol 36:1749–1759

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pietschmann P, Gollob E, Brosch S, Hahn P, Kudlacek S, Willhelm M, Woloszczuk W, Peterlik M, Tragl KH (2003) The effect of age and gender on cytokine production by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and markers of bone metabolism. Exp Gerontol 38:1119–1127

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pietschmann P, Azizi-Semrad U, Pils K, Fahrleitner-Pammer A, Resch H, Dobnig H (2010) Pharmacologic undertreatment of osteoporosis in Austrian nursing homes and senior’s residences. Wien Klin Wochenschr 160:532–537

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pietschmann P, Mechtcheriakova D, Mescheryakova A, Föger-Samwald U, Ellinger I (2016) Immunology of osteoporosis: a mini-review. Gerontology 62:128–137. doi:10.1159/000431091

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plotkin LI, Weinstein RS, Parfitt AM, Roberson PK, Manolagas SC, Bellido T (1999) Prevention of osteocyte and osteoblast apoptosis by bisphosphonates and calcitonin. J Clin Invest 104:1363–1374

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Polzer K, Joosten L, Gasser J, Distler JH, Ruiz G, Baum W, Redlich K, Bobacz K, Smolen JS, van den Berg W, Schett G, Zwerina J (2010) IL-1 is essential for systemic inflammatory bone loss. Ann Rheum Dis 69:284–290

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rauner M, Sipos W, Pietschmann P (2007) Osteoimmunology. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 143:31–48

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rho J, Takami M, Choi Y (2004) Osteoimmunology: interactions of the immune and skeletal systems. Mol Cells 17:1–9

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rivollier A, Mazzorana M, Tebib J, Piperno M, Aitsiselmi T, Rabourdin-Combe C, Jurdic P, Servet-Delprat C (2004) Immature dendritic cell transdifferentiation into osteoclasts: a novel pathway sustained by the rheumatoid arthritis microenvironment. Blood 104:4029–4037

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robbie-Ryan M, Pacifici R, Weitzmann MN (2006) IL-7 drives T cell-mediated bone loss following ovariectomy. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1068:348–351

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rothe A, Power BE, Hudson PJ (2008) Therapeutic advances in rheumatology with the use of recombinant proteins. Nat Clin Pract Rheumatol 4:605–614

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saika M, Inoue D, Kido S, Matsumoto T (2001) 17beta-estradiol stimulates expression of osteoprotegerin by a mouse stromal cell line, ST-2, via estrogen receptor-alpha. Endocrinology 142:2205–2212

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saltel F, Chabadel A, Zhao Y, Lafage-Proust MH, Clézardin P, Jurdic P, Bonnelye E (2006) Transmigration: a new property of mature multinucleated osteoclasts. J Bone Miner Res 21:1913–1923

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sato S, Suematsu A, Okamoto K, Yamaguchi A, Morishita Y, Kadono Y, Tanaka S, Kodama T, Akira S, Iwakura Y, Cua DJ, Takayanagi H (2006) Th17 functions as an osteoclastogenic helper T cell subset that links T cell activation and bone destruction. J Exp Med 203:2673–2682

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shen W, Durum SK (2010) Synergy of IL-23 and Th17 cytokines: new light on inflammatory bowel disease. Neurochem Res 35:940–946

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sipos W, Pieschmann P, Rauner M (2008) Strategies for novel therapeutic approaches targeting cytokines and signaling pathways of osteoclasto- and osteoblastogenesis in the fight against immune-mediated bone and joint diseases. Curr Med Chem 15:127–136

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sjögren K, Engdahl C, Henning P, Lerner UH, Tremaroli V, Lagerquist MK, Bäckhed F, Ohlsson C (2012) The gut microbiota regulates bone mass in mice. J Bone Miner Res 27:1357–1367

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith EP, Boyd J, Frank GR, Takahashi H, Cohen RM, Specker B, Williams TC, Lubahn DB, Korach KS (1994) Estrogen resistance caused by a mutation in the estrogen-receptor gene in a man. N Engl J Med 331:1056–1061

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Takayanagi H (2009) Osteoimmunology and the effects of the immune system on bone. Nat Rev Rheumatol 5:667–676

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tankó LB (2007) Effect of RANKL-specific denosumab on osteoclast number and function: a potential friend or foe? Curr Opin Investig Drugs 8:830–835

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teitelbaum SL (2007) Osteoclasts: what do they do and how do they do it? Am J Pathol 170:427–435

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tignor AS, Wu BU, Whitlock TL, Lopez R, Repas K, Banks PA, Conwell D (2010) High prevalence of low-trauma fracture in chronic pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 105:2680–2686

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tosteson A, Solomon D, King AB et al (2005) Projections of osteoporosis fractures and costs by skeletal site in the USA. J Bone Miner Res 20:S21

    Google Scholar 

  • Vojdani A, Erde J (2006a) Regulatory T cells, a potent immunoregulatory target for CAM researchers: the ultimate antagonist (I). Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 3:25–30

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vojdani A, Erde J (2006b) Regulatory T cells, a potent immunoregulatory target for CAM researchers: modulating allergic and infectious disease pathology (II). Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 3:209–215

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vojdani A, Erde J (2006c) Regulatory T cells, a potent immunoregulatory target for CAM researchers: modulating tumor immunity, autoimmunity and alloreactive immunity (III). Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 3:309–316

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh MC, Kim N, Kadono Y, Rho J, Lee SY, Lorenzo J, Choi Y (2006) Osteoimmunology: interplay between the immune system and bone metabolism. Annu Rev Immunol 24:33–63

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Won HY, Lee JA, Park ZS, Song JS, Kim HY, Jang SM, Yoo SE, Rhee Y, Hwang ES, Bae MA (2011) Prominent bone loss mediated by RANKL and IL-17 produced by CD4+ T Cells in TallyHo/JngJ Mice. PLoS One 6:e18168

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wong BR, Besser D, Kim N, Arron JR, Vologodskaia M, Hanafusa H, Choi Y (1999) TRANCE, a TNF family member, activates Akt/PKB through a signaling complex involving TRAF6 and s-src. Mol Cell 4:1041–1049

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wright RM (2007) Use of osteoporosis medications in older nursing facility residents. J Am Med Dir Assoc 8:453–457

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wutzl A, Gruber R, Brozek W, Hofbauer G, Lernbass I, Brosch S, Pietschmann P (2010) Mechanisms involved in the inhibition of osteoclast generation by the benzothiophene SERM LY117018. Wien Klin Wochenschr 122:626–632

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • **ao P, Chen Y, Jiang H, Liu YZ, Pan F, Yang TL, Tang ZH, Larsen JA, Lappe JM, Recker RR, Deng HW (2008) In vivo genome-wide expression study on human circulating B cells suggests a novel ESR1 and MAPK3 network for postmenopausal osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res 23:644–654

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yagi M, Miyamoto T, Toyama Y, Suda T (2006) Role of DC-STAMP in cellular fusion of osteoclasts and macrophage giant cells. J Bone Miner Metab 24:355–358

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamaguchi A, Komori T, Suda T (2000) Regulation of osteoblast differentiation mediated by bone morphogenetic proteins, hedgehogs, and Cbfa1. Endocr Rev 21:393–411

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zaidi M (2007) Skeletal remodeling in health and disease. Nat Med 13:791–801

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ziegler-Heitbrock L (2007) The CD14 + CD16+ blood monocytes: their role in infection and inflammation. J Leukoc Biol 81:584–592

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zwerina J, Redlich K, Polzer K, Joosten L, Kronke G, Distler J, Hess A, Pundt N, Pap T, Hoffmann O, Gasser J, Scheinecker C, Smolen JS, van den Berg W, Schett G (2007) TNF-induced structural joint damage is mediated by IL-1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:11742–11747

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Internal Medicine, State Hospital Oberpullendorf, Spitalgasse 23, Oberpullendorf, 7350, Austria

    Peter Mikosch MD

Authors
  1. Peter Mikosch MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Peter Mikosch MD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

    Peter Pietschmann

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Mikosch, P. (2016). Osteoporosis: Pathophysiology and Clinical Aspects. In: Pietschmann, P. (eds) Principles of Osteoimmunology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-34238-2_7

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation