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Democracy, Citizenship and Nationalism in Environmental Political Theory

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Abstract

The concept “democracy” arose in Ancient Athens. It describes a constitutionally governed polity that sanctions the political power of the organized poorer majority of citizens. Athenians contrasted democracy with positive and negative iterations of two regime types; aristocracy and oligarchy, rule by wealthy or high-born citizens, and monarchy and tyranny, rule by a king or prince (The Ancients had no positive definition of democracy, yet defined oligarchy positively as aristocracy and tyranny as monarchy. John Dunn, Setting the People Free: The Story of Democracy [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2019], 4. Also, Josiah Ober, “The Original Meaning of ‘Democracy’: Capacity to Do Things, Not Majority Rule,” Constellations 15, no. 1 [2008]: 8).

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The Ancients had no positive definition of democracy, yet defined oligarchy positively as aristocracy and tyranny as monarchy. John Dunn, Setting the People Free: The Story of Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2019), 4. Also, Josiah Ober, “The Original Meaning of ‘Democracy’: Capacity to Do Things, Not Majority Rule,” Constellations 15, no. 1 (2008): 8.

  2. 2.

    Niccolò Machiavelli, The Discourses, trans. Leslie J. Walker (London: Penguin 2003), 116 (D.I.5).

  3. 3.

    See, Bruno Leipold, Karma Nabulsi and Stuart White, eds., Radical Republicanism: Recovering the Tradition’s Popular Heritage (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020). Also, Yiftah Elazar and Geneviève Rousselière, eds., Republicanism and the Future of Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019).

  4. 4.

    In general, republicans reject civic humanist readings of the tradition as unsatisfactory because grounded in what is “essentially a form of perfectionism,” Frank Lovett, “Republicanism and Democracy Revisited,” in Republicanism and the Future of Democracy, ed. Yiftah Elazar and Geneviève Rousselière (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 119, and regard “liberalism as … impoverished or incoherent” Maurizio Viroli, Republicanism, trans. Anthony Shugaar (New York: Hill & Wang, 2002), 61.

  5. 5.

    Luca Baccelli, “Political Imagination, Conflict, and Democracy: Machiavelli’s Republican Realism,” in Machiavelli on Liberty & Conflict, ed. David Johnston, Nadia Urbinati and Camila Vergara (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017); Richard Bellamy, “The Paradox of the Democratic Prince: Machiavelli and the Neo-Machiavellians on Ideal Theory, Realism, and Democratic Leadership,” in Politics Recovered: Realist Thought in Theory and Practice, ed. Matt Sleat (New York: Columbia University Press, 2019); Alison McQueen, Political Realism in Apocalyptic Times (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018).

  6. 6.

    Raymond Geuss, Philosophy and Real Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008), 101; Bernard Williams, In the Beginning Was the Deed: Realism and Moralism in Political Argument (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 2.

  7. 7.

    Dunn, xx.

  8. 8.

    Annelien de Dijn, Freedom: An Unruly History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2020), 215.

  9. 9.

    David Runciman, Politics (London: Profile Books, 2014).

  10. 10.

    Duncan Bell, “What Is Liberalism?,” Political Theory 42, no. 6 (2014): 684, citing Gary Gerstle, “The Protean Character of American Liberalism,” American Historical Review 99, no. 4 (1994): 1046.

  11. 11.

    Bellamy, 172.

  12. 12.

    Note that the institutional products of this synthesis are known as liberal-democracies rather than liberal-republics. See, Josiah Ober, Demopolis: Democracy Before Liberalism, in Theory and Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 160.

  13. 13.

    Williams, 9; also, C.B. Macpherson, The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962).

  14. 14.

    Bernard Manin, The Principles of Representative Government (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

  15. 15.

    Alex Gourevitch, From Slavery to the Cooperative Commonwealth: Labor and Republican Liberty in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014).

  16. 16.

    Leipold et al.

  17. 17.

    Ibid., also, Dunn, Gourevitch and John Medearis, Why Democracy Is Oppositional (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015).

  18. 18.

    Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998).

  19. 19.

    Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement, 2nd ed. (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2005).

  20. 20.

    Murray Bookchin, The Ecology of Freedom: The Emergence and Dissolution of Hierarchy (Oakland: AK Press, 2005); Herbert Marcuse, Eros and Civilization (London: Sphere Books, 1970); Arne Naess, Ecology, Community, Lifestyle: Outline of an Ecosophy, trans. D. Rothenburg (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).

  21. 21.

    Joachim Radkau, Nature and Power: A Global History of the Environment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008); The Age of Ecology (Cambridge: Polity, 2014); Andreas Malm, Fossil Capital: The Rise of Steam Power and the Roots of Global Warming (London: Verso, 2016); John Bellamy Foster, Socialism and Ecology: The Return of Nature (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2020); Jason W. Moore, Capitalism in the Web of Life: Ecology and the Accumulation of Capital (London: Verso, 2015). Contemporaneously, Galbraith; Engler.

  22. 22.

    See, Dennis Wrong, The Problem of Order (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994).

  23. 23.

    Both civic or liberal and democratic republicans agree on this point. Compare, Philip Pettit, On the People’s Terms: A Republican Theory and Model of Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 36 with John P. McCormick, Reading Machiavelli: Scandalous Books, Suspect Engagements, and the Virtue of Populist Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 46.

  24. 24.

    Quentin Skinner, Hobbes and Republican Liberty (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 126.

  25. 25.

    Gourevitch, 2014; also, Elizabeth Anderson, with et al., Private Government: How Employers Rule Our Lives (and Why We Don’t Talk About It) (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017).

  26. 26.

    Andy Scerri, Greening Citizenship: Sustainable Development, the State and Ideology (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2012), x.

  27. 27.

    Ibid., 113.

  28. 28.

    Compare, J.K. Galbraith, The New Industrial State, 2nd ed. (London: Pelican, 1967) with Friedrich Hayek, The Constitution of Liberty (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2011).

  29. 29.

    Compare, Fareed Zakaria, The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007) with Nadia Urbinati, Me the People: How Populism Transforms Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019).

  30. 30.

    Richard Bellamy, “Introduction: The Theories and Practices of Citizenship,” in What Is Citizenship? Theories of Citizenship: Classic and Contemporary Debates (Vol. 1 of Citizenship: Critical Concepts in Political Science), ed. Richard Bellamy and Madeleine Kennedy-MacFoy (London: Routledge, 2014), 14.

  31. 31.

    The literature now escapes citation. See, Geuss, Williams, most recently, Katrina Forrester, In the Shadow of Justice: Postwar Liberalism and the Re-making of Political Philosophy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019).

  32. 32.

    Ober, 2017, 7.

  33. 33.

    Raymond Geuss, Politics and the Imagination (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010), 33.

  34. 34.

    Forrester, ix.

  35. 35.

    For example, see contributions by Michael Freeden, Alison McQueen and William Scheuerman, in Matt Sleat, ed. Politics Recovered: Realist Thought in Theory and Practice (New York: Columbia University Press, 2018).

  36. 36.

    Scerri, 82.

  37. 37.

    Tim Hayward, “Ecological Citizenship: Justice, Rights and the Virtue of Resourcefulness,” Environmental Politics 15, no. 3 (2006): 441.

  38. 38.

    Andrew Dobson and Ángel Valencia Sáiz, “Introduction,” in Citizenship, Environment, Economy (London: Routledge, 2005), 157.

  39. 39.

    Ibid.

  40. 40.

    Andy Scerri, “Green Citizenship and the Political Critique of Injustice,” Citizenship Studies 17, no. 3–4 (2013): 294.

  41. 41.

    Originally articulated by Bart van Steenbergen, “Towards a Global Ecological Citizen,” in The Condition of Citizenship, ed. B. van Steenbergen (London: Sage, 1994).

  42. 42.

    Teena Gabrielson and Katelyn Parady, “Corporeal Citizenship: Rethinking Green Citizenship Through the Body,” Environmental Politics 19, no. 3 (2010): 374–5. Compare with John Barry, Rethinking Green Politics (London: Sage, 1999); Andrew Dobson, Citizenship and the Environment (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 99.

  43. 43.

    Ibid.

  44. 44.

    John Barry, The Politics of Actually Existing Unsustainability (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).

  45. 45.

    “Resistance Is Fertile: From Environmental to Sustainability Citizenship,” in Environmental Citizenship, ed. A. Dobson and D. Bell (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006), 23.

  46. 46.

    Anne Fremaux, After the Anthropocene: Green Republicanism in a Post-capitalist World (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 225, 39.

  47. 47.

    Marcel Wissenburg, Green Liberalism: The Free and the Green Society (London: UCL Press, 1998).

  48. 48.

    Manuel Arias-Maldonado, “The Democratisation of Sustainability: The Search for a Green Democratic Model,” Environmental Politics 9, no. 4 (2000): 56.

  49. 49.

    Ibid.

  50. 50.

    Williams, 1; Forrester, ix.

  51. 51.

    Sherilyn MacGregor, “No Sustainability Without Justice: A Feminist Critique of Environmental Citizenship,” in Environmental Citizenship, ed. A. Dobson and D. Bell (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006), 102.

  52. 52.

    Gabrielson and Parady, 374, 80.

  53. 53.

    Ibid., 375.

  54. 54.

    Ibid., 381.

  55. 55.

    Ibid., 386.

  56. 56.

    Amanda Machin, “Decision, Disagreement and Responsibility: Towards an Agonistc Green Citizenship,” Environmental Politics 21, no. 6 (2012): 858.

  57. 57.

    Ibid., 848.

  58. 58.

    Ibid., 856.

  59. 59.

    Ibid., 858.

  60. 60.

    Chantal Mouffe, On the Political (London: Routledge, 2005), 31.

  61. 61.

    See, The Return of the Political (London: Verso, 1993); The Challenge of Carl Schmitt (London: Verso, 1999); The Democratic Paradox (London: Verso, 2000); On the Political; “The Importance of Engaging the State,” in What Is Radical Politics Today?, ed. J. Pugh (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2009).

  62. 62.

    “The Importance of Engaging the State,” 236–7.

  63. 63.

    Hauke Brunkhorst, Critical Theory of Legal Revolutions: Evolutionary Perspectives (London: Bloomsbury, 2014), 308.

  64. 64.

    Lois McNay, The Misguided Search for the Political: Social Weightlessness in Radical Democratic Theory (Cambridge: Polity, 2014), Urbinati, Me the People.

  65. 65.

    Scerri, 2013, 294; also, Postpolitics and the Limits of Nature: Critical Theory, Moral Authority, and Radicalism in the Anthropocene (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 2019), 162.

  66. 66.

    Philip Mirowski and Dieter Plehwe, eds., The Road from Mont Pèlerin: The Making of the Neoliberal Thought Collective (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009); Jeffrey A. Winters, Oligarchy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011); Quinn Slobodian, The Globalists: The End of Empire and the Birth of Neoliberalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018).

  67. 67.

    Urbinati, 123.

  68. 68.

    J. Hacker and P. Pierson, “Winner-Take-All Politics: Public Policy, Political Organization, and the Precipitous Rise of Top Incomes in the United States,” Politics & Society 38, no. 2 (2010): 176.

  69. 69.

    Lars Cornelissen, “How Can the People Be Restricted? The Mont Pèlerin Society and the Problem of Democracy, 1947–1988,” History of European Ideas 43, no. 5 (2017).

  70. 70.

    Philip Mirowski, “The Eighteenth Brumaire of James Buchanan: Review of Nancy Maclean, Democracy in Chains,” boundary 2 46, no. 1 (2019).

  71. 71.

    Margaret Somers, Genealogies of Citizenship: Markets, Statelessness, and the Right to Have Rights (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Bryan S. Turner, “The Erosion of Citizenship,” British Journal of Sociology 52, no. 2 (2001); Andy Scerri, “Moralizing About the White Working-Class ‘Problem’ in Appalachia and Beyond,” Appalachian Studies 25, no. 2 (2019).

  72. 72.

    Ober, 2008, 6.

  73. 73.

    As outlined in, John P. McCormick, Machiavellian Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

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    Andy Scerri

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    Joel Jay Kassiola

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Scerri, A. (2023). Democracy, Citizenship and Nationalism in Environmental Political Theory. In: Jay Kassiola, J., Luke, T.W. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Environmental Politics and Theory. Environmental Politics and Theory. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14346-5_3

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