Abstract
This chapter traces the transnational journey of Philippine anthropologist Felipe Landa Jocano from the 1950s to the 1970s. Jocano was part of a group of Philippine social scientists who earned their post-graduate degrees at the University of Chicago after the Philippines became independent from the US. One of the pre-eminent scholars in the Philippines, Jocano’s professional and intellectual journey unfolded against the backdrop of the Cold War and decolonization. Jocano received funding from US institutions that contributed to the Cold War, and he was committed to structural functionalism and modernization theory. Yet he developed a decolonized approach to modernization that questioned the United States as the ideal type. He tweaked Western modernization and merged it with an emphasis on pre-colonial heritage in the Philippines with the aim of contributing to his homeland’s post-World War II nation-building efforts. Moreover, Jocano’s work contributed to Philippine Dictator Ferdinand Marcosʼs ideology for a “New Society.”
I would like to thank the following people for their critical reading of and helpful feedback on this chapter: Mark Solovey, Christian Dayé, Kira Lussier, Barbara Holler, the members of the workshop “Cold War Social and Behavioral Sciences in International and Transnational Contexts” at the IHPST, University of Toronto, on May 22–23, 2019, and the participants in the panels “Cold War Social and Behavioral Sciences: International and Transnational Entanglements” at the XIX ISA World Congress of Sociology in Toronto on July 20, 2018.
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Notes
- 1.
Maria Cynthia Rosa Banzon Bautista, “The Social Sciences in the Philippines: Reflections on Trends and Developments,” Philippine Review of Economics 38 (2001), 92–120, esp. 98.
- 2.
Glenn May, “Father Frank Lynch and the Sha** of Philippine Social Science,” Itinerario 22 (1998), 99–121.
- 3.
Lily S. Mendoza, Between the Homeland and the Diaspora: The Politics of Theorizing Filipino and Filipino American Identities: A Second Look at the Poststructuralism-Indigenization Debates (New York: Routledge, 2002), 11.
- 4.
Ponciano L. Bennagen, “The Indigenization and Asianization of Anthropology,” 1–30 in Virgilio G. Enriquez, ed., Indigenous Psychology: A Book of Readings (Quezon City: Philippine Psychology Research and Training House, 1990).
- 5.
Filomeno V. Aguilar Jr., “Tracing Origins: Ilustrado Nationalism and the Racial Science of Migration Waves,” Journal of Asian Studies 64 (2005), 605–638. Scholars who have suggested conducting research on this quest for authenticity include: Vicente Rafael, “Review of Glenn Anthony May, Inventing a Hero: The Posthumous Re-creation of Andres Bonifacio,” American Historical Review 103 (1998), 1304–1306, 1305; Michael Salman, “Confabulating American Colonial Knowledge of the Philippines: What the Social Life of Jose E. Marco’s Forgeries and Ahmed Chalabi Can Tell Us About the Epistemology of Empire,” 260–273 in Alfred McCoy and Francisco A. Scarano, eds., Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of the Modern American States (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2009), 263.
- 6.
Salman, “Confabulating American Colonial,” 267.
- 7.
See also the following articles in Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia 55 (2019): Carolyn Sobritchea, “Anchoring Change in Tradition,” 135–137; Janus Isaac Nolasco, “Anthropology and Nation-Building in Post-War Philippines,” 156–162, here 156; David Gowey, “(Re)theorizing the Nation: Jocano’s Structural-Functionalism in the Neo-Colonial Order,” 146–149, here 148.
- 8.
See for example: Joel Isaac and Duncan Bell, eds., Uncertain Empire: American History and the Idea of the Cold War (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2012); Joel Isaac, “Introduction: The Human Sciences and Cold War America,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 47 (2011) 225–231; David H. Price, Cold War Anthropology: The CIA, the Pentagon, and the Growth of Dual Use Anthropology (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2016).
- 9.
Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003); Michael, E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and “Nation Building” in the Kennedy Era (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); Rebecca Lemov, “X-Rays of Inner Worlds: The Mid-Twentieth-Century American Projective Tests Movement,” Journal of the History of the Behavior Sciences 47 (2011), 251–278; Joy Rohde, “The Last Stand of the Psychocultural Cold Warriors: Military Contract Research in Vietnam,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 47 (2011), 232–250; Christopher Simpson, “Universities, Empire, and the Production of Knowledge: An Introduction,” xi-xxiv in Christopher Simpson, ed., Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences During the Cold War (New York: New Press, 1998).
- 10.
On Jocanoʼs structural functionalism, nationalism, and modernization see: Gowey, “(Re)theorizing the Nation,” 147; Nolasco, “Anthropology,” 156–162; Sobritchea, “Anchoring Change”; Christa Wirth, “Jocano’s Digging for a Pre-colonial Past at Santa Ana in Manila,” Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia 55 (2019), 150–155. See also Tomasito T. Talledo, “Construction of Identity in Central Panay: A Critical Examination of the Ethnographic Subject in the Works of Jocano and Magos,” Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia 40 (2004), 111–123.
- 11.
Some aspects of Philippine archaeology and the Cold War are discussed in Wirth, “Jocanoʼs Digging,” 153.
- 12.
John Krige and Jessica Wang, “Nation, Knowledge and Imagined Futures: Science, Technology, and Nation-Building, Post-1945,” History and Technology 31 (2015), 171–179; Leslie James and Elisabeth Leake, “Introduction,” 1–17 in Leslie James and Elisabeth Leake, eds., Decolonization and the Cold War: Negotiating Independence (London: Bloomsbury, 2015).
- 13.
On how the Cold War and modernization theory created a new U.S. and Western colonial order, see Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Time (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 397; Latham, Modernization, 14; Simeon Man, Soldiering Through Empire: Race and the Making of the Decolonizing Pacific (Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2018).
- 14.
On Marcosʼs modernization model see: Talitha Espiritu, Passionate Revolutions: The Media and the Rise and Fall of the Marcos Regime (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2017).
- 15.
On the ties between Jocano and the Marcoses during the Santa Ana archeological dig in Manila, see Wirth, “Jocano’s Digging,” 152 f.
- 16.
Upon the declaration of Martial Law in 1972, the military raided, among other places, the University of the Philippines. Students and professors were arrested. Several academics went underground after the raids. Patricio N. Abinales and Donna J. Amoroso, State and Society in the Philippines (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005), 205. On complicity see: Peter Stoett, “Shades of Complicity: Towards a Typology of Transnational Crimes Against Humanity,” 31–55 in Adam Jones, ed., Genocide, War Crimes and the West: History and Complicity (London: Zed Books, 2004).
- 17.
Claudio calls for an internationalization of Philippine history: Lisandro Claudio, “Postcolonial Fissures and the Contingent Nation: An Antinationalist Critique of Philippine Historiography,” Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints 61 (2013), 45–75.
- 18.
Felipe Jocano, Jr., “Dr. F. Landa Jocano: A Life in the Academe,” Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia 55 (2019), 123–134, here 124. No author, “NCCA Bestows Highest Honor to F. Landa Jocano,” The Manila Times, May 24, 2014, http://www.manilatimes.net/ncca-bestows-highest-honor-to-f-landa-jocano/99012/ (downloaded March 23, 2019).
- 19.
F. Landa Jocano, Letter in Which Jocano Introduces Himself to Fred Eggan, October 9, 1957, Box 7, Folder 17, Philippine Studies Program Records, 1930–1979, Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library, henceforth, “PSP records.”
- 20.
F. Landa Jocano, Curriculum Vitae. Box 7, Folder 17, p. 1, PSP records.
- 21.
F. Landa Jocano, Letter in Which Jocano Introduces Himself to Fred Eggan.
- 22.
Ibid.
- 23.
Ibid.
- 24.
Letter from Stasé McPherron to F. Landa Jocano, December 26, 1957, Box 7, Folder 17, PSP records.
- 25.
Letter from F. Landa Jocano to Stasé McPherron, January 9, 1958, p. 1, Box 7, Folder 17, PSP records.
- 26.
F. Landa Jocano, Curriculum Vitae. Starting with “Academics,” p. 1, Box 7, Folder 17, PSP records. Jocano received the Roy D. Albert Award in Anthropology at the University of Chicago. See: Tomasito T. Talledo, “Construction of Identity in Central Panay: A Critical Examination of the Ethnographic Subject in the Works of Jocano and Magos,” Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia 40 (2004), 111–123, here 114.
- 27.
Fred Eggan, Philippine Studies Program, 1959–1965, p. 1, Box 1, Folder 1, PSP records.
- 28.
Asian Center, University of the Philippines, Manila, Obituary, “F. Landa Jocano, PhD (1930–2013),” https://ac.upd.edu.ph/index.php/resources/news-announcements/1659-f-landa-jocano-1930-2013 (downloaded September 10, 2020).
- 29.
F. Landa Jocano, Curriculum Vitae. Starting with “Academics,” p. 1, PSP records. Oral History, conducted by Wirth with Manila scholar 1, Manila, February 7, 2018; Felipe Jocano, Jr., “Jocano: A Life,” 125.
- 30.
Mario D. Zamora, “Robert Bradford Fox (1918–1985),” The Journal of Asian Studies 45 (1986), 667; No author, “Anthropologist F. Landa Jocano, 83, passes away,” ABS-CBN News, October 29, 2013, https://news.abs-cbn.com/lifestyle/10/28/13/anthropologist-f-landa-jocano-83 (downloaded August 9, 2019).
- 31.
Letter from Fred Eggan to Jocano, January 13, 1959, Box 7, Folder 17, PSP Records. As Jocano wrote in his letter to Stasé McPherron on January 9, 1957, Box 7, Folder 17, PSP records: the Sulods are “[…] pagan Filipinos living in the mountains of Panay.”
- 32.
Letter from Eggan to Jocano, January 13, 1959, Box 7, Folder 17, PSP records.
- 33.
Letter from Jocano to Eggan on August 12, 1960, Box 7, Folder 17, PSP records; for the general development of Filipino academic exchange see: Mario Zamora, “Cultural Anthropology in the Philippines – 1900-1983: Perspectives, Problems, and Prospects,” 311–341 in David J. Banks, ed., Changing Identities in Modern Southeast Asia (The Hague: Mouton, 1976), 330.
- 34.
Letter from Jocano to Eggan on August 12, 1960, Box 7, Folder 17, PSP records. The Fulbright grant would cover travel expenses: Letter from Jocano to Eggan. December 1, 1959, Box 20, Folder 6, PSP records.
- 35.
Jocano, Curriculum Vitae. Starting with “Academics,” 1. PSP records.
- 36.
Letter from F. Landa Jocano to E.D. Hester, undated, Box 20, Folder 5, PSP records.
- 37.
Jocano writes that his fieldwork on the Malitbog between 1955 and 1960 was financed by the Asia Foundation and the National Research Council of the Philippines. See: F. Landa Jocano, Manuscript: “Conversion and the Patterning of Christian Experience in Malitbog, Central Panay, Philippines,” undated, Box 20, Folder 6, PSP records; F. Landa Jocano, Curriculum Vitae. Starting with “Academics,” 4.
- 38.
Letter from Jocano to E.D. Hester, March 24, 1964, Box 20, Folder 6, PSP records.
- 39.
Letter from E.D. Hester to Commissioner Canuto Manuel, June 7, 1963, Box 20, Folder 5, PSP records. Also, Jocano, Jr., “Jocano: A Life,” 126.
- 40.
Jocano, Curriculum Vitae. Starting with “Academics,” 1.
- 41.
D.R.M. Irving, Colonial Counterpoint: Music in Early Manila (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2019), 89 f.
- 42.
Box 30, Box 31, PSP records.
- 43.
Jocano, Jr., “Jocano: A Life,” 127.
- 44.
No author, most likely written by E.D. Hester, Letter to Felipe L. Jocano, June and August 1961, Philippines, Box 20, Folder 6, PSP records.
- 45.
Eufracio C. Abaya et al., “Shifting Terms of Engagement: A Review of the History of Anthropology in the Philippines,” 1–10 in Virginia Miralao, ed., The Philippine Social Sciences in the Life of the Nation: The History and Development of Social Science Disciplines in the Philippines (Quezon City: Philippine Social Science Council, 1999), note 6 on p. 8. On Radcliffe-Brownʼs influence see, for example: Jocano, Felipe Landa. “Agricultural Rituals in a Philippine Barrio,” Philippine Sociological Review 15 (1967), 48–56, here 48.
- 46.
Latham, Modernization, 4, 30–34.
- 47.
Michael E. Latham, The Right Kind of Revolution: Modernization, Development, and U.S. Foreign Policy from the Cold War to the Present (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011), 18, 67, 118.
- 48.
Espiritu, Passionate Revolutions, 60 f.
- 49.
Frank Ninkowich, The Diplomacy of Ideas: US Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938–1950 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 118–119; Lonnie R. Johnson, “The Making of the Fulbright Program, 1946–1961: Architecture, Philosophy, and Narrative,” 152–178 in Alessandro Brogi, Giles Scott-Smith, and David J. Snyder, eds., The Legacy of J. William Fulbright: Policy, Power, and Ideology (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2019), 157; Giles Scott-Smith, “The Fulbright Program in the Netherlands: An Example of Science Diplomacy,” 136–161 in Jeroen Van Dongen, ed., Cold War Science and the Transatlantic Circulation of Knowledge (Leiden: Brill, 2016), here 139.
- 50.
1966 memo to 303 Committee, quoted in David Price, Cold War Anthropology, 182.
- 51.
Price, Cold War Anthropology, 176.
- 52.
Letter from F. Landa Jocano to Stasé McPherron, January 9, 1958.
- 53.
A response by the CIA to a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request stated that the CIA would “neither confirm nor deny the existence or nonexistence of records” pertaining to Jocano. From this answer no interpretation can be deducted. Jocano’s personal papers are not accessible because they were lost and damaged: Personal communication with Prof. Felipe Jocano Jr. via email, Friday, September 9th, 2020.
- 54.
Price, Cold War Anthropology, 165.
- 55.
Ibid., xxii.
- 56.
Jocano, F. Landa. Letter in Which Jocano Introduces Himself to Fred Eggan.
- 57.
See also Price, Cold War Anthropology, 166 f.
- 58.
Ibid., xxii.
- 59.
Naomi Oreskes, “Introduction,” 1–10 in Naomi Oreskes and John Krige, eds., Science and Technology in the Global Cold War (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2014), here 2.; relating to the PSP, see Christa Wirth, “The Creation of a Postcolonial Subject: The Chicago and Ateneo de Manila Schools and the Peace Corps in the Philippines, 1960–1970,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 54 (2018), 5–24.
- 60.
Nick Cullather, Illusions of Influence: The Political Economy of United States–Philippines Relations, 1942–1960 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994), 59, 80, 84 f., 91, 117, 133, 135.
- 61.
Fred Eggan, 1955. Second Annual Report of the Philippine Studies Program: 1954–1955, Appendix A. Memorandum on Philippine Research, 1–21, p. 5. In Box 1, Folder 4, PSP records.
- 62.
Belinda A. Aquino, “How Philippine Studies Began,” Center for Philippine Studies, University of Hawai῾i at Mānoa, July 14, 2014, https://www.hawaii.edu/cps/how-philippine-studies-began/ (downloaded September 3, 2018). This article first appeared in Filipinas magazine in October 2000.
- 63.
Salman, “Confabulating American Colonial,” 267; see also Box 1, PSP Records.
- 64.
Annual Report 1953–1975, Philippine Studies Program, Box 1, Folder 1, p. 4, PSP records.
- 65.
Perla Q. Makil, “‘Alaala’ of Frank Lynch, S. J.,” 1–12 in Aram A. Yengoyan and Perla Q. Makil, eds., Philippine Society and the Individual: Selected Essays of Frank Lynch: With an Introduction by Mary Racelis (Quezon City: Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila University, 2004), here 4; Fred Eggan, no year, Philippine Studies Program, 1953–1975, Box 1, Folder 1, p. 1. PSP records.
- 66.
Wirth, “Creation,” 12.
- 67.
Eggan , Fred. 1956. Third Annual Report on Philippine Studies Program, 1955–1956, 1–18, here p. 13. In Box 1, Folder 5, PSP records.
- 68.
Letter from Fred Eggan to Jane Wilson, April 16, 1957, Box 2, Folder 17, PSP records.
- 69.
See footnotes 8 and 9 in this text; also Edward H. Berman, The Influence of the Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller Foundations on American Foreign Policy: The Ideology of Philanthropy (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1983), 7; Frances Stonor Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: New Press, 1999).
- 70.
Ferdinand Marcos, Seventh State of the Nation Address, January 24, 1972, https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1972/01/24/ferdinand-e-marcos-seventh-state-of-the-nation-address-january-24-1972/ (downloaded March 4, 2019).
- 71.
Espiritu, Passionate Revolutions, 17, 62, 76–83.
- 72.
Ibid.; p. 60.
- 73.
See Wirth, “Jocano’s Digging.”
- 74.
Sobritchea refers to this as a “change in tradition”; see Sobritchea, “Anchoring Change,” 135.
- 75.
F. Landa Jocano, Philippine Prehistory: An Anthropological Overview of the Beginnings of Filipino Society and Culture (Quezon City: Philippine Center for Advanced Studies, 1975). F. Landa Jocano, Growing Up in a Philippine Barrio (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1969), 3. F. Landa Jocano, “To the Young Reader,” in F. Landa Jocano, Myths and Legends of the Early Filipinos (Quezon City: Alemar Phoenix, 1971).
- 76.
This left little room for “contradictions, impurities, paradoxes” within culture(s): see Gowey, “(Re)theorizing the Nation,” 148; see also Reuben Ramas Cañete, Matthew Santamaria, and Marc San Valentin, “Sulu Sojourns: Photo-ethnography and Political Discourses on Four Ethno-Linguistic Groups in the Sulu and Tawi-Tawi Archipelagoes,” Philippine Political Science Journal 35 (2017), 136–157, here 153.
- 77.
Jocano, Growing Up, 13.
- 78.
F. Landa Jocano. “Ideology and Radical Movements in the Philippines: A Preliminary View,” 99–230 in Hans-Dieter Evers, ed., Modernization in South-East Asia (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1973), 216 f.
- 79.
See also Sobritchea, “Anchoring Change,” 136 f.
- 80.
See also Gowey, “(Re)theorizing the Nation.”
- 81.
F. Landa Jocano, “The Structure of Social Relations and its Implication for Social Change: A Conceptual Analysis,” Philippine Sociological Review 11 (1963), 206–215, here 214.
- 82.
F. Landa Jocano, The Traditional World of Malitbog (Quezon City: Community Development Research Council, University of the Philippines, 1969), 5.
- 83.
Ibid., 7.
- 84.
F. Landa Jocano, “Review of the book Modernization: Its Impact in the Philippines, by Walden F. Bello and Maria C. Roldan, eds., Institute of Philippine Culture Papers, 6 (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1967/1968),” American Anthropologist 72 (1970), 1529 f.
- 85.
Matthew Santamaria, “Pioneers and Legends: The Rise and Transformation of Asian Studies at the University of the Philippines’ Asian Center”, Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia 53 (2017), 128–135; Mendoza, Homeland, 116.
- 86.
No author, “AC Faculty, Staff Form Panel on F. Landa Jocano in ‘UP Anthropology @ 100’ Conference,” December 5, 2017, https://www.ac.upd.edu.ph/index.php/resources/news-announcements/968-panel-landa-jocano-anthropology-conference-diliman (downloaded October 2, 2019).
- 87.
Asian Center: University of the Philippines Faculty; Picture gallery at entry of UP Asian Center showing the past deans.
- 88.
Oral History, conducted by Wirth with Manila scholar 5, Manila, February 13, 2018.
- 89.
Letter from Donn Hart to Fred Eggan, April 12, 1974, Box 22, Folder 16, PSP records.
- 90.
Jocano, Jr., “Jocano: A Life,” 129.
- 91.
Ibid. Oral History, conducted by Wirth with Manila scholar 1; Mendoza, Homeland, 116.
- 92.
Sobritchea, Carolyn I., “Reflections on the Development of Philippines Studies in the Philippines: The U.P. Asian Center Experience,” Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia 38:1 (2002), 99–109, 101 f.
- 93.
Oral History, conducted by Wirth with Manila scholar 6. Manila, February 5, 2018.
- 94.
Virginia A. Miralao, “The Philippine Social Sciences in Balance: Reflections at the Close of the Century,” 344–373, in Virginia Miralao, ed., The Philippine Social Sciences, 354.
- 95.
Espiritu, Passionate Revolutions, 81.
- 96.
Jocano, Philippine Prehistory. Jocano with Philippine Prehistory and others also objected to Foxʼs “wave migration” theory whereby everything ranging from people to culture migrated from outside the Philippines into the Philippines and that in this sense nothing was autochthonous to the islands; see Mendoza, Homeland, 48.
- 97.
R. Santos Cuyugan. “Foreword”, ix-x in Jocano, Philippine Prehistory, ix.
- 98.
Ferdinand Marcos, quoted in R. Santos Cuyugan’s foreword to ibid., x.
- 99.
F. Landa Jocano, Slum as a Way of Life: A Study of Co** Behavior in an Urban Environment (Quezon City: New Day, 1975), 1, 27, 38, 79, 197.
- 100.
Carolyn Sobritchea, “Felipe Landa Jocano: Professor Emeritus, UP,” http://anthro.upd.edu.ph/centennial/100-anthropologists/193-felipe-landa-jocano-professor-emeritus-up (downloaded March 25, 2019).
- 101.
No author, “AC Faculty, Staff Form Panel on F. Landa.”
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Wirth, C. (2021). The Anthropologist as Deviant Modernizer: Felipe Landa Jocano’s Journey Through the Cold War, the Social Sciences, Decolonization, and Nation Building in the Philippines. In: Solovey, M., Dayé, C. (eds) Cold War Social Science. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70246-5_6
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