Common Pediatric Conditions and Evaluation of the Lim** Child

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Clinical Foundations of Musculoskeletal Medicine
  • 1258 Accesses

Abstract

A common reason to bring a child to the pediatrician, orthopedic surgeon, urgent care, or emergency department is for evaluation of a limp. The differential diagnosis for a limp in a child is long and includes trauma, infection, structural variations, neuromuscular conditions and malignancy. Evaluation of a lim** child requires a thorough history and physical and oftentimes additional lab and imaging studies. This chapter discusses the workup of a lim** child and discusses causes of lim** in children in adolescents.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 69.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 89.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Karol L. Gait Analysis. In: Herring JA, editor. Tachdjian’s pediatric orthopaedics: from the Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for children. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Herring John A, Birch JG. The lim** child. In: Herring JA, editor. Tachdjian’s pediatric orthopaedics: from the Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for children. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Beck RJ, Andriacchi TP, Kuo KN. Changes in the gait patterns of growing children. J Bone Jt Surg Am. 1981;63:1452.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Cupp T, Oeffinger D, Tylkowski C, Augsburger S. Age-related kinetic changes in normal pediatrics. J Pediatr Orthop. 1999;19(4):475–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Ounpuu S, Gage JR, Davis RB. Three-dimensional lower extremity joint kinetics in normal pediatric gait. J Pediatr Orthop. 1991;11(3):341–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Sutherland DH, Cooper L, Daniel D. The role of the ankle plantar flexors in normal walking. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1980;62(3):354–63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Beck RJ, Andriacchi TP, Kuo KN, Fermier RW, Galante JO. Changes in the gait patterns of growing children. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1981;63(9):1452–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. van der Linden ML, Kerr AM, Hazlewood ME, Hillman SJ, Robb JE. Kinematic and kinetic gait characteristics of normal children walking at a range of clinically relevant speeds. J Pediatr Orthop. 2002;22(6):800–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Kaufman KR, Miller LS, Sutherland DH. Gait asymmetry in patients with limb-length inequality. J Pediatr Orthop. 1996;16(2):144–50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Flynn JM, Widmann RF. The lim** child: evaluation and diagnosis. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2001;9(2):89–98.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Dabney KW, Lipton G. Evaluation of limp in children. Curr Opin Pediatr. 1995;7(1):88–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Leet AI, Skaggs DL. Evaluation of the acutely lim** child. Am Fam Physician. 2000;61(4):1011–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Phillips WA. The child with a limp. Orthop Clin North Am. 1987;18(4):489–501.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Fischer SU, Beattie TF. The lim** child: epidemiology, assessment and outcome. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1999;81(6):1029–34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Tuten HR, Gabos PG, Kumar SJ, Harter GD. The lim** child: a manifestation of acute leukemia. J Pediatr Orthop. 1998;18(5):625–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Kendall KD, Patel C, Wiley JP, Pohl MB, Emery CA, Ferber R. Steps toward the validation of the Trendelenburg test: the effect of experimentally reduced hip abductor muscle function on frontal plane mechanics. Clin J Sport Med. 2013;23(1):45–51. https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0b013e31825e66a1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Krautwurst BK, Wolf SI, Heitzmann DWW, Gantz S, Braatz F, Dreher T. The influence of hip abductor weakness on frontal plane motion of the trunk and pelvis in patients with cerebral palsy. Res Dev Disabil. 2013;34(4):1198–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2012.12.018.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Choban S, Killian JT. Evaluation of acute gait abnormalities in preschool children. J Pediatr Orthop. 1990;10(1):74–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Oudjhane K, Newman B, Oh KS, Young LW, Girdany BR. Occult fractures in preschool children. J Trauma. 1988;28(6):858–60.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Herring JA. Developmental dysplasia of the hip. In: Herring JA, editor. Tachdjian’s pediatric orthopaedics: from the Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for children. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Koureas G, Wicart P, Seringe R. Etiology of developmental hip dysplasia or dislocation: review article. Hip Int. 2007;17(Suppl 5):S1–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Cady RB. Developmental dysplasia of the hip: definition, recognition, and prevention of late sequelae. Pediatr Ann. 2006;35(2):92–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Weinstein S. Developmental hip dysplasia and dislocation. In: Morrissy R, Weinstein S, editors. Lovell and Winter’s pediatric orthopaedics, vol. 2. New York: Lippincott-Raven; 1996. p. 927.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Pollet V, Percy V, Prior HJ. Relative risk and incidence for developmental dysplasia of the hip. J Pediatr. 2017;181:202–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2016.10.017.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Tan SHS, Wong KL, Hui JH. Incorporating risk factors in the development of the screening programme for developmental dysplasia of the hips. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1097/BPB.0000000000000567.

  26. Geertsema D, Meinardi JE, Kempink DRJ, Fiocco M, van de Sande MAJ. Screening program for neonates at risk for developmental dysplasia of the hip: comparing first radiographic evaluation at five months with the standard twelve week ultrasound. A prospective cross-sectional cohort study. Int Orthop. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-018-4089-2.

  27. Guille JT, Pizzutillo PD, MacEwen GD. Development dysplasia of the hip from birth to six months. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2000;8(4):232–42.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Talbot C, Adam J, Paton R. Late presentation of developmental dysplasia of the hip : a 15-year observational study. Bone Joint J. 2017;99-B(9):1250–5. https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.99B9.BJJ-2016-1325.R1.

  29. Lindberg AW, Bompadre V, Satchell EK, Larson ACR, White KK. Patient factors associated with delayed diagnosis of developmental dysplasia of the hip. J Child Orthop. 2017;11(3):223–8. https://doi.org/10.1302/1863-2548.11.160228.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Thomas SRYW. A review of long-term outcomes for late presenting developmental hip dysplasia. Bone Joint J. 2015;97-B(6):729–33. https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.97B6.35395.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Mulpuri K, Schaeffer EK, Andrade J, et al. What risk factors and characteristics are associated with late-presenting dislocations of the hip in infants? Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2016;474(5):1131–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11999-015-4668-0.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Azzopardi T, Van Essen P, Cundy PJ, Tucker G, Chan A. Late diagnosis of developmental dysplasia of the hip: an analysis of risk factors. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2011;20(1):1–7. https://doi.org/10.1097/BPB.0b013e3283415927.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Riboni G, Bellini A, Serantoni S, Rognoni E, Bisanti L. Ultrasound screening for developmental dysplasia of the hip. Pediatr Radiol. 2003;33(7):475–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-003-0940-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Graf R. Fundamentals of sonographic diagnosis of infant hip dysplasia. J Pediatr Orthop. 1984;4(6):735–40.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Graf R. Classification of hip joint dysplasia by means of sonography. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 1984;102(4):248–55.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Bracken J, Ditchfield M. Ultrasonography in developmental dysplasia of the hip: what have we learned? Pediatr Radiol. 2012;42(12):1418–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-012-2429-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Jones DA, Powell N. Ultrasound and neonatal hip screening. A prospective study of “high risk” babies. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1990;72(3):457–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Segal LS, Boal DK, Borthwick L, Clark MW, Localio AR, Schwentker EP. Avascular necrosis after treatment of DDH: the protective influence of the ossific nucleus. J Pediatr Orthop. 1999;19(2):177–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Schur MD, Lee C, Arkader A, Catalano A, Choi PD. Risk factors for avascular necrosis after closed reduction for developmental dysplasia of the hip. J Child Orthop. 2016;10(3):185–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11832-016-0743-7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Chen C, Doyle S, Green D, et al. Presence of the Ossific nucleus and risk of osteonecrosis in the treatment of developmental dysplasia of the hip: a meta-analysis of cohort and case-control studies. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2017;99(9):760–7. https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.16.00798.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Wyles CC, Heidenreich MJ, Jeng J, Larson DR, Trousdale RT, Sierra RJ. The John Charnley Award: redefining the natural history of osteoarthritis in patients with hip dysplasia and im**ement. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2017;475(2):336–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11999-016-4815-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Albinana J, Dolan LA, Spratt KF, Morcuende J, Meyer MD, Weinstein SL. Acetabular dysplasia after treatment for developmental dysplasia of the hip. Implications for secondary procedures. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2004;86(6):876–86.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Dudkiewicz I, Salai M, Ganel A, Blankstein A, Chechik A. Total hip arthroplasty in patients younger than 30 years of age following developmental dysplasia of hip (DDH) in infancy. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 2002;122(3):139–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004020100307.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Wiig O, Terjesen T, Svenningsen S, et al. The epidemiology and aetiology of Perthes’ disease in Norway: a nationwide study of 425 patients. J Bone Jt Surg [Br]. 2006;88:1217.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Ibrahim T, Little DG. The pathogenesis and treatment of Legg-Calve-Perthes disease. JBJS Rev. 2016;4(7) https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.RVW.15.00063.

  46. Kim HKW. Legg-Calve-Perthes disease. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2010;18(11):676–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Catterall A. Legg-Calve-Perthes syndrome. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1981;158:41–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Kim Harry KW, Herring JA. Legg-Calve-Perthes disease. In: Herring JA, editor. Tachdjian’s pediatric orthopaedics: from the Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for children. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Kim HKW. Pathophysiology and new strategies for the treatment of Legg-Calve-Perthes disease. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2012;94(7):659–69. https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.J.01834.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Dimeglio A, Canavese F. Imaging in Legg-Calve-Perthes disease. Orthop Clin North Am. 2011;42(3):297–302., v. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocl.2011.04.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Herring JA, Neustadt JB, Williams JJ, Early JS, Browne RH. The lateral pillar classification of Legg-Calve-Perthes disease. J Pediatr Orthop. 1992;12(2):143–50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Herring JA, Kim HT, Browne R. Legg-Calve-Perthes disease. Part I: classification of radiographs with use of the modified lateral pillar and Stulberg classifications. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004;86-A(10):2103–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Hoffinger SA, Henderson RC, Renner JB, et al. Magnetic resonance evaluation of metaphyseal changes in Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease. J Pediatr Orthop. 1993;13:602.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Jaramillo D, Kasser JR, Villegas-Medina OL, Gaary E, Zurakowski D. Cartilaginous abnormalities and growth disturbances in Legg-Calve-Perthes disease: evaluation with MR imaging. Radiology. 1995;197(3):767–73. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiology.197.3.7480754.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Sutherland AD, Savage JP, Paterson DC, Foster BK. The nuclide bone-scan in the diagnosis and management of Perthes’ disease. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1980;62(3):300–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Van Campenhout A, Moens P, Fabry G. Serial bone scintigraphy in Legg-Calve-Perthes disease: correlation with the Catterall and Herring classification. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2006;15(1):6–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Herring JA. Legg-Calve-Perthes disease at 100: a review of evidence-based treatment. J Pediatr Orthop. 2011;31(2 Suppl):S137–40. https://doi.org/10.1097/BPO.0b013e318223b52d.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Rich MM, Schoenecker PL. Management of Legg-Calve-Perthes disease using an A-frame orthosis and hip range of motion: a 25-year experience. J Pediatr Orthop. 2013;33(2):112–9. https://doi.org/10.1097/BPO.0b013e318281ab44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Herring JA. Congenital Coxa Vara. In: Herring JA, editor. Tachdjian’s pediatric orthopaedics: from the Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for children. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Weinstein JN, Kuo KN, Millar EA. Congenital coxa vara. A retrospective review. J Pediatr Orthop. 1984;4(1):70–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Herring JA. Slipped capital femoral epiphysis. In: Herring JA, editor. Tachdjian’s pediatric orthopaedics: from the Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for children. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Azzopardi T, Sharma S, Bennet GC. Slipped capital femoral epiphysis in children aged less than 10 years. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2010;19(1):13–8. https://doi.org/10.1097/BPB.0b013e32832e0b6c.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Loder R. The demographics of slipped capital femoral epiphysis. An international multicenter study. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1996;322:8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Loder RT, Greenfield ML. Clinical characteristics of children with atypical and idiopathic slipped capital femoral epiphysis: description of the age-weight test and implications for further diagnostic investigation. J Pediatr Orthop. 2001;21(4):481–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Keenan WN, Clegg J. Idiopathic bilateral slipped upper femoral epiphysis in a child under six years of age. J Bone Jt Surg [Br]. 1994;76:495.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Loder RT, Wittenberg B, DeSilva G. Slipped capital femoral epiphysis associated with endocrine disorders. J Pediatr Orthop. 1995;15(3):349–56.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Thawrani DP, Feldman DS, Sala DA. Current practice in the management of slipped capital femoral epiphysis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2016;36(3):e27–37. https://doi.org/10.1097/BPO.0000000000000496.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Loder RT, Richards BS, Shapiro PS, Reznick LR, Aronson D. Acute slipped capital femoral epiphysis: the importance of physeal stability. J Bone Jt Surg - Am Bone Jt Surg. 1993;75(8):1134–40.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Zaltz I, Baca G, Clohisy JC, Unstable SCFE. Review of treatment modalities and prevalence of osteonecrosis hip. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2013;471(7):2192–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11999-012-2765-x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Kennedy JG, Hresko MT, Kasser JR, Shrock KB, Zurakowski D, Waters PM, Millis M. Osteonecrosis of the femoral head associated with slipped capital femoral epiphysis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2001;21(2):189–93.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Sankar WN, McPartland TG, Millis MB, Kim Y-J. The unstable slipped capital femoral epiphysis: risk factors for osteonecrosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2010;30(6):544–8. https://doi.org/10.1097/BPO.0b013e3181e4f372.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Loder RT. What is the cause of avascular necrosis in unstable slipped capital femoral epiphysis and what can be done to lower the rate? J Pediatr Orthop. 2013;33 Suppl 1(1):S88–91. https://doi.org/10.1097/BPO.0b013e318277172e.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Palocaren T, Holmes L, Rogers K, Kumar S. Outcome of in situ pinning in patients with unstable slipped capital femoral epiphysis: assessment of risk factors associated with avascular necrosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2010;30(1):31–6. https://doi.org/10.1097/BPO.0b013e3181c537b0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Chen RC, Schoenecker PL, Dobbs MB, Luhmann SJ, Szymanski DA, Gordon J. Urgent reduction, fixation, and arthrotomy for unstable slipped capital femoral epiphysis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2009;29(7):687–94. https://doi.org/10.1097/BPO.0b013e3181b7687a.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Matava MJ, Patton CM, Luhmann S, Gordon JE, Schoenecker PL. Knee pain as the initial symptom of slipped capital femoral epiphysis: an analysis of initial presentation and treatment. J Pediatr Orthop. 1999;19(4):455–60.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Crawford AH, Kucharzyk DW, Ruda R, Smitherman HCJ. Diskitis in children. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1991;266:70–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Ring D, Wenger DR. Magnetic resonance-imaging scans in discitis. Sequential studies in a child who needed operative drainage: a case report. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1994;76(4):596–601.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Kocher MS, Mandiga R, Murphy JM, et al. A clinical practice guideline for treatment of septic arthritis in children: efficacy in improving process of care and effect on outcome of septic arthritis of the hip. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2003;85-A(6):994–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Kocher MS, Mandiga R, Zurakowski D, Barnewolt C, Kasser JR. Validation of a clinical prediction rule for the differentiation between septic arthritis and transient synovitis of the hip in children. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004;86-A(8):1629–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Kocher MS, Zurakowski D, Kasser JR. Differentiating between septic arthritis and transient synovitis of the hip in children: an evidence-based clinical prediction algorithm. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1999;81(12):1662–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Singhal R, Perry DC, Khan FN, et al. The use of CRP within a clinical prediction algorithm for the differentiation of septic arthritis and transient synovitis in children. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2011;93(11):1556–61. https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.93B11.26857

  82. Dodwell ER. Osteomyelitis and septic arthritis in children: current concepts. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2013;25(1):58–63. https://doi.org/10.1097/MOP.0b013e32835c2b42.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Kang S-N, Sanghera T, Mangwani J, Paterson JMH, Ramachandran M. The management of septic arthritis in children: systematic review of the English language literature. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2009;91(9):1127–33. https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.91B9.22530.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Funk SS, Copley LAB. Acute hematogenous osteomyelitis in children: pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment. Orthop Clin North Am. 2017;48(2):199–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocl.2016.12.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Carpenter SL, Goldman J, Sherman AK, et al. Clinical variables and Staphylococcus aureus virulence factors associated with venous thromboembolism in children. Thromb Res. 2016;138:69–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2015.11.029.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Nouri A, Walmsley D, Pruszczynski B, Synder M. Transient synovitis of the hip: a comprehensive review. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2014;23(1):32–6. https://doi.org/10.1097/BPB.0b013e328363b5a3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Terjesen T, Osthus P. Ultrasound in the diagnosis and follow-up of transient synovitis of the hip. J Pediatr Orthop. 1991;11(5):608–13.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Giancane G, Alongi A, Ravelli A. Update on the pathogenesis and treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2017;29(5):523–9. https://doi.org/10.1097/BOR.0000000000000417.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Prakken B, Albani S, Martini A. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Lancet (London, England). 2011;377(9783):2138–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60244-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. Grimm NL, Weiss JM, Kessler JI, Aoki SK. Osteochondritis dissecans of the knee: pathoanatomy, epidemiology, and diagnosis. Clin Sports Med. 2014;33(2):181–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csm.2013.11.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. O’Connor MA, Palaniappan M, Khan N, Bruce CE. Osteochondritis dissecans of the knee in children. A comparison of MRI and arthroscopic findings. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2002;84(2):258–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Kocher MS, Tucker R, Ganley TJ, Flynn JM. Management of osteochondritis dissecans of the knee: current concepts review. Am J Sports Med. 2006;34(7):1181–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546506290127.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Schulz JF, Chambers HG. Juvenile osteochondritis dissecans of the knee: current concepts in diagnosis and management. Instr Course Lect. 2013;62:455–67.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Wall EJ, Milewski MD, Carey JL, et al. The reliability of assessing radiographic healing of osteochondritis Dissecans of the knee. Am J Sports Med. 2017;45(6):1370–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546517698933.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Kocher MS, Logan CA, Kramer DE. Discoid lateral meniscus in children: diagnosis, management, and outcomes. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2017;25(11):736–43. https://doi.org/10.5435/JAAOS-D-15-00491.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Connolly B, Babyn PS, Wright JG, Thorner PS. Discoid meniscus in children: magnetic resonance imaging characteristics. Can Assoc Radiol J. 1996;47(5):347–54.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Aichroth PM, Patel DV, Marx CL. Congenital discoid lateral meniscus in children. A follow-up study and evolution of management. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1991;73(6):932–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Klammer G, Espinosa N, Iselin LD. Coalitions of the Tarsal bones. Foot Ankle Clin. 2018;23(3):435–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcl.2018.04.011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Denning JR. Tarsal Coalition in Children. Pediatr Ann. 2016;45(4):e139–43. https://doi.org/10.3928/00904481-20160309-01.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Mosca VS. Subtalar coalition in pediatrics. Foot Ankle Clin. 2015;20(2):265–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcl.2015.02.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Mosca VS, Bevan WP. Talocalcaneal tarsal coalitions and the calcaneal lengthening osteotomy: the role of deformity correction. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2012;94(17):1584–94. https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.K.00926.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Pamela J. Lang .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Lang, P.J. (2021). Common Pediatric Conditions and Evaluation of the Lim** Child. In: Esther, R.J. (eds) Clinical Foundations of Musculoskeletal Medicine. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42894-5_22

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42894-5_22

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-42893-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-42894-5

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Navigation