Abstract
The use of in vitro mutagenesis to characterize structure-function relationships in G protein-coupled receptors has led to the identification of specific amino acid residues that contribute to ligand binding, G protein coupling, and receptor folding. Mutagenesis is commonly used to change or mutate a DNA sequence so that one or more amino acid residues in a given G protein-coupled receptor are changed to different residues. These techniques can also be used to delete or insert one or more amino acids into a receptor and to exchange DNA sequences between homologous receptors. Of the available techniques, site-directed mutagenesis is the most widely employed, and this method can be used to change, insert, or delete specific amino acids residues in a receptor. This chapter describes a reliable PCR-based protocol for this method. We also briefly describe other mutagenesis techniques including random mutagenesis, scanning mutagenesis, deletion mutagenesis, and the construction of receptor chimeras. Important considerations for conducting and interpreting mutagenesis studies are also highlighted.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Sawyer GW, Ehlert FJ, Shults CA (2010) A conserved motif in the membrane proximal C-terminal tail of human muscarinic m1 acetylcholine receptors affects plasma membrane expression. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 332:76–86
McCullum EO, Williams BA, Zhang J et al (2010) Random mutagenesis by error-prone PCR. In: Braman J (ed) In vitro mutagenesis protocols: third edition, Methods in molecular biology. Springer Science+Business Media, New York
Cadwell RC, Joyce GF (1994) Mutagenic PCR. PCR Methods Appl 3:S136–S140
Fujii R, Kitaoka M, Hayashi K (2004) One-step random mutagenesis by error-prone rolling circle amplification. Nucleic Acids Res 32:e145
Chusacultanachai S, Yuthavong Y (2004) Random mutagenesis strategies for construction of large and diverse clone libraries of mutated DNA fragments. In: Melville SE (ed) Methods in molecular biology. Humana Press, Totowa
Schmidt C, Li B, Bloodworth L et al (2003) Random mutagenesis of the M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor expressed in yeast. Identification of point mutations that “silence” a constitutively active mutant M3 receptor and greatly impair receptor/G protein coupling. J Biol Chem 278:30248–30260
Li B, Nowak NM, Kim SK et al (2005) Random mutagenesis of the M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor expressed in yeast: identification of second-site mutations that restore function to a coupling-deficient mutant M3 receptor. J Biol Chem 280:5664–5675
Beukers MW, van Oppenraaij J, van der Hoorn PP et al (2004) Random mutagenesis of the human adenosine A2B receptor followed by growth selection in yeast. Identification of constitutively active and gain of function mutations. Mol Pharmacol 65:702–710
Erlenbach I, Kostenis E, Schmidt C et al (2001) Single amino acid substitutions and deletions that alter the G protein coupling properties of the V2 vasopressin receptor identified in yeast by receptor random mutagenesis. J Biol Chem 276:29382–29392
Li B, Scarselli M, Knudsen CD et al (2007) Rapid identification of functionally critical amino acids in a G protein-coupled receptor. Nat Methods 4:169–174
Erlenbach I, Kostenis E, Schmidt C et al (2001) Functional expression of M(1), M(3) and M(5) muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in yeast. J Neurochem 77:1327–1337
Beukers MW, Ijzerman AP (2005) Techniques: how to boost GPCR mutagenesis studies using yeast. Trends Pharmacol Sci 26:533–539
Hulme EC, Lu ZL (1998) Scanning mutagenesis of transmembrane domain 3 of the M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor. J Physiol Paris 92:269–274
Ward WH, Timms D, Fersht AR (1990) Protein engineering and the study of structure–function relationships in receptors. Trends Pharmacol Sci 11:280–284
Hulme EC, Lu ZL, Ward SD et al (1999) The conformational switch in 7-transmembrane receptors: the muscarinic receptor paradigm. Eur J Pharmacol 375:247–260
Martin SS, Boucard AA, Clement M et al (2004) Analysis of the third transmembrane domain of the human type 1 angiotensin II receptor by cysteine scanning mutagenesis. J Biol Chem 279:51415–51423
Zhu Q, Casey JR (2007) Topology of transmembrane proteins by scanning cysteine accessibility mutagenesis methodology. Methods 41:439–450
Kristiansen K (2004) Molecular mechanisms of ligand binding, signaling, and regulation within the superfamily of G-protein-coupled receptors: molecular modeling and mutagenesis approaches to receptor structure and function. Pharmacol Ther 103:21–80
Hulme EC, Lu ZL, Bee MS (2003) Scanning mutagenesis studies of the M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor. Receptors Channels 9:215–228
Hulme EC (2013) GPCR activation: a mutagenic spotlight on crystal structures. Trends Pharmacol Sci 34:67–84
Conner A, Wheatley M, Poyner DR (2010) Site-directed mutagenesis and chimeras. In: Poyner DR, Wheatley M (eds) G protein-coupled receptors essential methods. Wiley, New York
Cotecchia S, Exum S, Caron MG et al (1990) Regions of the alpha 1-adrenergic receptor involved in coupling to phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis and enhanced sensitivity of biological function. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 87:2896–2900
Liu J, Conklin BR, Blin N et al (1995) Identification of a receptor/G-protein contact site critical for signaling specificity and G-protein activation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 92:11642–11646
Yin D, Gavi S, Wang HY et al (2004) Probing receptor structure/function with chimeric G-protein-coupled receptors. Mol Pharmacol 65:1323–1332
Conklin BR, Farfel Z, Lustig KD et al (1993) Substitution of three amino acids switches receptor specificity of Gq alpha to that of Gi alpha. Nature 363:274–276
Conklin BR, Herzmark P, Ishida S et al (1996) Carboxyl-terminal mutations of Gq alpha and Gs alpha that alter the fidelity of receptor activation. Mol Pharmacol 50:885–890
Dixon RA, Kobilka BK, Strader DJ et al (1986) Cloning of the gene and cDNA for mammalian beta-adrenergic receptor and homology with rhodopsin. Nature 321:75–79
Dixon RA, Sigal IS, Rands E et al (1987) Ligand binding to the beta-adrenergic receptor involves its rhodopsin-like core. Nature 326:73–77
Dixon RA, Sigal IS, Candelore MR et al (1987) Structural features required for ligand binding to the beta-adrenergic receptor. EMBO J 6:3269–3275
Lee KB, Ptasienski JA, Pals-Rylaarsdam R et al (2000) Arrestin binding to the M(2) muscarinic acetylcholine receptor is precluded by an inhibitory element in the third intracellular loop of the receptor. J Biol Chem 275:9284–9289
Sawyer GW, Ehlert FJ, Shults CA (2008) Cysteine pairs in the third intracellular loop of the muscarinic m1 acetylcholine receptor play a role in agonist-induced internalization. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 324:196–205
Strader CD, Sigal IS, Blake AD et al (1987) The carboxyl terminus of the hamster beta-adrenergic receptor expressed in mouse L cells is not required for receptor sequestration. Cell 49:855–863
Shapiro RA, Nathanson NM (1989) Deletion analysis of the mouse m1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor: effects on phosphoinositide metabolism and down-regulation. Biochemistry (Mosc) 28:8946–8950
Watterson KR, Johnston E, Chalmers C et al (2002) Dual regulation of EDG1/S1P(1) receptor phosphorylation and internalization by protein kinase C and G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 2. J Biol Chem 277:5767–5777
Liao CF, Themmen AP, Joho R et al (1989) Molecular cloning and expression of a fifth muscarinic acetylcholine receptor. J Biol Chem 264:7328–7337
Kubo T, Fukuda K, Mikami A et al (1986) Cloning, sequencing and expression of complementary DNA encoding the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor. Nature 323:411–416
Kubo T, Maeda A, Sugimoto K et al (1986) Primary structure of porcine cardiac muscarinic acetylcholine receptor deduced from the cDNA sequence. FEBS Lett 209:367–372
Bonner TI, Buckley NJ, Young AC et al (1987) Identification of a family of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor genes. Science 237:527–532
Bonner TI, Young AC, Brann MR et al (1988) Cloning and expression of the human and rat m5 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor genes. Neuron 1:403–410
Gocayne J, Robinson DA, FitzGerald MG et al (1987) Primary structure of rat cardiac beta-adrenergic and muscarinic cholinergic receptors obtained by automated DNA sequence analysis: further evidence for a multigene family. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 84:8296–8300
Frielle T, Collins S, Daniel KW et al (1987) Cloning of the cDNA for the human beta 1-adrenergic receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 84:7920–7924
Kobilka BK, Matsui H, Kobilka TS et al (1987) Cloning, sequencing, and expression of the gene coding for the human platelet alpha 2-adrenergic receptor. Science 238:650–656
Cotecchia S, Schwinn DA, Randall RR et al (1988) Molecular cloning and expression of the cDNA for the hamster alpha 1-adrenergic receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 85:7159–7163
Bunzow JR, Van Tol HH, Grandy DK et al (1988) Cloning and expression of a rat D2 dopamine receptor cDNA. Nature 336:783–787
Pritchett DB, Bach AW, Wozny M et al (1988) Structure and functional expression of cloned rat serotonin 5HT-2 receptor. EMBO J 7:4135–4140
Julius D, MacDermott AB, Axel R et al (1988) Molecular characterization of a functional cDNA encoding the serotonin 1c receptor. Science 241:558–564
Strader CD, Sigal IS, Register RB et al (1987) Identification of residues required for ligand binding to the beta-adrenergic receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 84:4384–4388
Wang T, Duan Y (2009) Ligand entry and exit pathways in the beta2-adrenergic receptor. J Mol Biol 392:1102–1115
Cherezov V, Rosenbaum DM, Hanson MA et al (2007) High-resolution crystal structure of an engineered human beta2-adrenergic G protein-coupled receptor. Science 318:1258–1265
Haga K, Kruse AC, Asada H et al (2012) Structure of the human M2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor bound to an antagonist. Nature 482:547–551
Kruse AC, Hu J, Pan AC et al (2012) Structure and dynamics of the M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor. Nature 482:552–556
Wang C, Jiang Y, Ma J et al (2013) Structural basis for molecular recognition at serotonin receptors. Science 340:610–614
Chien EY, Liu W, Zhao Q et al (2010) Structure of the human dopamine D3 receptor in complex with a D2/D3 selective antagonist. Science 330:1091–1095
Warne T, Serrano-Vega MJ, Baker JG et al (2008) Structure of a beta1-adrenergic G-protein-coupled receptor. Nature 454:486–491
Higuchi R, Krummel B, Saiki RK (1988) A general method of in vitro preparation and specific mutagenesis of DNA fragments: study of protein and DNA interactions. Nucleic Acids Res 16:7351–7367
Sarkar G, Sommer SS (1990) The “megaprimer” method of site-directed mutagenesis. Biotechniques 8:404–407
Sambrook J, Russell DW (2001) Molecular cloning: a laboratory manual. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor
Conner A, Barwell J, Poyner DR et al (2011) The use of site-directed mutagenesis to study GPCRs. In: Willars GB, Challiss RAJ (eds) Receptor signal transduction protocols: third edition, Methods in molecular biology. Springer Science+Business Media LLC, New York
Ehlert FJ, Rathbun BE (1990) Signaling through the muscarinic receptor-adenylate cyclase system of the heart is buffered against GTP over a range of concentrations. Mol Pharmacol 38:148–158
Ehlert FJ (2000) Ternary complex model. In: Christopoulos A (ed) Biomedical applications of computer modeling. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Ehlert FJ, Griffin MT, Suga H (2011) Analysis of functional responses at G protein coupled receptors: estimation of relative affinity constants for the inactive receptor state. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 338:658–670
Traut TW (1994) Physiological concentrations of purines and pyrimidines. Mol Cell Biochem 140:1–22
Cheng Y, Prusoff WH (1973) Relationship between the inhibition constant (K1) and the concentration of inhibitor which causes 50 per cent inhibition (I50) of an enzymatic reaction. Biochem Pharmacol 22:3099–3108
Berrie CP, Birdsall NJ, Burgen AS et al (1979) Guanine nucleotides modulate muscarinic receptor binding in the heart. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 87:1000–1005
Childers SR, Snyder SH (1978) Guanine nucleotides differentiate agonist and antagonist interactions with opiate receptors. Life Sci 23:759–761
Freedman SB, Poat JA, Woodruff GN (1981) Effect of guanine nucleotides on dopaminergic agonist and antagonist affinity for [3H]sulpiride binding sites in rat striatal membrane preparations. J Neurochem 37:608–612
Griffin MT, Figueroa KW, Liller S et al (2007) Estimation of agonist activity at g protein-coupled receptors: analysis of M2 muscarinic receptor signaling through Gi/o, Gs, and G15. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 321:1193–1207
Ehlert FJ, Suga H, Griffin MT (2011) Quantifying agonist activity at G protein-coupled receptors. J Vis Exp 58:e3179
Tran JA, Chang A, Matsui M et al (2009) Estimation of relative microscopic affinity constants of agonists for the active state of the receptor in functional studies on M2 and M3 muscarinic receptors. Mol Pharmacol 75:381–396
Suga H, Sawyer GW, Ehlert FJ (2010) Mutagenesis of nucleophilic residues near the orthosteric binding pocket of M1 and M2 muscarinic receptors: effect on the binding of nitrogen mustard analogs of acetylcholine and McN-A-343. Mol Pharmacol 78:745–755
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Sawyer, G.W., Ehlert, F.J. (2014). Using In Vitro Mutagenesis to Characterize Structure-Function Relationships in G Protein-Coupled Receptors. In: Stevens, C. (eds) G Protein-Coupled Receptor Genetics. Methods in Pharmacology and Toxicology. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-62703-779-2_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-62703-779-2_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana Press, Totowa, NJ
Print ISBN: 978-1-62703-778-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-62703-779-2
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols