SpringerLink
Log in

An Evidence-Based Perspective on Sexual Offender Registration and Residential Restrictions

  • Chapter
Sexual Offending

Abstract

This chapter will first describe what is currently known about the registered sex offender (RSO) population in the USA, as well as what we know about victimization patterns. Then, common public perceptions about sexual offenders will be compared with research findings. Sex offender registration and residential restriction laws will be examined to illustrate the gaps that can exist between evidence and practice. Registration durations of 25 years to life contradict empirical evidence that risk declines with increased time spent in the community offense-free. Thus, the emphasis on registration compliance over longer registration periods will likely create an inefficient distribution of resources without contributing meaningfully to community safety. Lawmakers should invest in evidence-based policies rather than those that demonstrate negligible public safety benefit. Sexual assault is a serious social problem, and in order to be effective, prevention strategies should reflect not only public opinion, but empirical demonstration of effectiveness. This chapter will explore how contemporary sex offender management policy might better incorporate empirical research into sound prevention strategies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
GBP 19.95
Price includes VAT (United Kingdom)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
GBP 87.50
Price includes VAT (United Kingdom)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
GBP 109.99
Price includes VAT (United Kingdom)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
GBP 159.99
Price includes VAT (United Kingdom)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abel, G. G., Becker, J. V., Cunningham-Rathner, J., Mittleman, M. S., Murphy, M. S., & Rouleou, J. L. (1987). Self-reported crimes of nonincarcerated paraphiliacs. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2, 3–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abel, G. G., Becker, J. V., Cunningham-Rathner, J., Mittleman, M. S., & Rouleou, J. L. (1988). Multiple paraphilic diagnoses among sex offenders. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 16(2), 153–168.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ackerman, A. A., Harris, A. J., Levenson, J. S., & Zgoba, K. (2011). Who are the people in your neighborhood? A descriptive analysis of individuals on public sex offender registries. International Journal of Psychiatry and Law, 34(3), 149–159. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2011.04.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahlmeyer, S., Heil, P., McKee, B., & English, K. (2000). The impact of polygraphy on admissions of victims and offenses in adult sexual offenders. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 12(2), 123–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, A. L., & Sample, L. (2008). Public awareness and action resulting from sex offender community notification laws. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 19(4), 371–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blood, P., Watson, L., & Stageberg, P. (2008). State legislation monitoring report. Des Moines, IA: Criminal and Juvenile Justice Planning.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brannon, Y. N., Levenson, J. S., Fortney, T., & Baker, J. N. (2007). Attitudes about community notification: A comparison of sexual offenders and the non-offending public. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 19(4), 369–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruell, C., Swatt, M., & Sample, L. (2008). Potential consequences of sex offender residency restriction laws: Housing availability and offender displacement. Paper presented at the American Society of Criminology, St. Louis, MO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2003). Recidivism of sex offenders released from prison in 1994. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2008). Criminal victimization 2007. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caputo, A. A. (2001). Community notification laws for sex offenders: Possible mediators and moderators of citizen co**. Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(9-B).

    Google Scholar 

  • Chajewski, M., & Mercado, C. C. (2009). An evaluation of sex offender residency restriction functioning in town, county, and city-wide jurisdictions. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 20(1), 44–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colombino, N., Mercado, C. C., Levenson, J. S., & Jeglic, E. L. (2011). Preventing sexual violence: Can examination of offense location inform sex crime policy? International Journal of Psychiatry and Law, 34(3), 160–167. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2011.04.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colorado Department of Public Safety. (2004). Report on safety issues raised by living arrangements for and location of sex offenders in the community. Denver, CO: Sex Offender Management Board.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duwe, G., & Donnay, W. (2010). The effects of failure to register on sex offender recidivism. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(5), 520–536.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duwe, G., Donnay, W., & Tewksbury, R. (2008). Does residential proximity matter? A geographic analysis of sex offense recidivism. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35(4), 484–504.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, K., & Ireland, C. A. (2006). Attitudes towards sex offenders and the influence of offence type: A comparison of staff working in a forensic setting and students. British Journal of Forensic Practice, 8(2), 10–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finn, P. (1997). Sex offender community notification. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fortney, T., Baker, J. N., & Levenson, J. S. (2009). A look in the mirror: Sexual abuse professionals’ perceptions about sex offenders. Victims and Offenders, 4(1), 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fortney, T., Levenson, J. S., Brannon, Y., & Baker, J. (2007). Myths and Facts about sex offenders: Implications for practice and public policy. Sex Offender Treatment, 2(1), 1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, N. J., & Sandler, J. C. (2009). The Adam Walsh Act: A false sense of security or an effective public policy initiative? Criminal Justice Policy Review, Online First. doi:10.1177/0887403409338565, Retrieved from http://cjp.sagepub.com.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Rust, M. C., Nier, J. A., Banker, B. S., Ward, C. M., et al. (1991). Reducing intergroup bias: Elements of intergroup cooperation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(3), 388–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. K. (2002). Recidivism and age: Follow-up data from 4,673 sexual offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17(10), 1046–1062.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. K., & Bussiere, M. T. (1998). Predicting relapse: A meta-analysis of sexual offender recidivism studies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(2), 348–362.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. K., Morton, K. E., & Harris, A. J. R. (2003). Sexual offender recidivism risk: What we know and what we need to know. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences, 989, 154–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. K., & Morton-Bourgon, K. (2005). The characteristics of persistent sexual offenders: A meta-analysis of recidivism studies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(6), 1154–1163.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, A. J. R., Phenix, A., Hanson, R. K., & Thornton, D. (2003). Static-99 coding rules. Retrieved from http://ww2.ps-sp.gc.ca/publications/corrections/pdf/Static-99-coding-Rules_e.pdf

  • Heil, P., Ahlmeyer, S., & Simons, D. (2003). Crossover sexual offenses. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 15(4), 221–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iowa County Attorneys Association. (2006). Statement on sex offender Residence Restrictions in Iowa. Des Moines: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz, S., Levenson, J. S., & Ackerman, A. (2008). Myths and facts about sexual violence: Public perceptions and implications for prevention. Violence and Victims (under review).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kernsmith, P. D., Comartin, E., Craun, S. W., & Kernsmith, R. M. (2009). The relationship between sex offender registry utilization and awareness. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 21(2), 181–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Letourneau, E., Levenson, J. S., Bandyopadhyay, D., Sinha, D., & Armstrong, K. (2010). Effects of South Carolina’s sex offender registration and notification policy on adult recidivism. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 21(4), 435–458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S. (2008). Collateral consequences of sex offender residence restrictions. Criminal Justice Studies, 21(2), 153–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S., Brannon, Y., Fortney, T., & Baker, J. (2007). Public perceptions about sex offenders and community protection policies. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 7(1), 1–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S., & Cotter, L. P. (2005a). The effect of Megan’s Law on sex offender reintegration. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 21(1), 49–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S., & Cotter, L. P. (2005b). The impact of sex offender residence restrictions: 1,000 feet from danger or one step from absurd? International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 49(2), 168–178.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S., & D'Amora, D. A. (2007). Social policies designed to prevent sexual violence: The emperor's new clothes? Criminal Justice Policy Review, 18(2), 168–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S., D'Amora, D. A., & Hern, A. (2007). Megan’s Law and its impact on community re-entry for sex offenders. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 25, 587–602.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S., Fortney, T., & Baker, J. N. (2010). Views of sexual abuse professionals about sex offender notification policies. Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 54(2), 150–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S., & Hern, A. (2007). Sex offender residence restrictions: Unintended consequences and community re-entry. Justice Research and Policy, 9(1), 59–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S., Letourneau, E., Armstrong, K., & Zgoba, K. (2010). Failure to register as a sex offender: Is it associated with recidivism? Justice Quarterly, 27(3), 305–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S., & Tewksbury, R. (2009). Collateral damage: Family members of registered sex offenders. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 34(1), 54–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lieb, R., & Nunlist, C. (2008). Community notification as viewed by Washington’s Citizens: A ten-year follow-up. Olympia, WA: Washington State Institute for Public Policy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lobanov-Rostovsky, C., & Harris, A. (2015). Reconciling sex offender management policy, research, and practice. In A. Phenix & H. M. Hoberman (Eds.), Sexual Offending: Antecedents, Assessment and Management. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malesky, A., & Keim, J. (2001). Mental health professionals’ perspectives on sex offender registry web sites. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 13(1), 53–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matson, S., & Lieb, R. (1996). Community notification in Washington State: A 1996 survey of law enforcement. Olympia, WA: Washington State Institute for Public Policy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meloy, M. L., Miller, S. L., & Curtis, K. M. (2007, November 16, 2007). Distortion, exaggeration & hysteria in sex offender legislation: The deconstruction of state-level sex offender residency & mobility restrictions. Paper presented at the American Society for Criminology, Atlanta, GA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meloy, M. L., Miller, S. L., & Curtis, K. M. (2008). Making sense out of nonsense: The deconstruction of state-level sex offender residence restrictions. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 33(2), 209–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mercado, C. C., Alvarez, S., & Levenson, J. S. (2008). The impact of specialized sex offender legislation on community re-entry. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 20(2), 188–205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meredith, T., Speir, J., & Johnson, S. (2007). Develo** and implementing automated risk assessments in parole. Justice Research and Policy, 9(1), 1–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merton, R. K. (1936). The unanticipated consequences of purposive social action. American Sociological Review, 1(6), 894–904.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. G. (1996). Search and destroy: African American males in the criminal justice system. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Minnesota Department of Corrections. (2003). Level three sex offenders residential placement issues. St. Paul: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • NAESV. (2006). Community management of convicted sex offenders: Registration, electronic monitoring, civil commitment, mandatory minimums, and Residence Restrictions. Retrieved from www.naesv.org

  • National Center for Missing and Exploited Children. (2007) Retrieved from http://www.missingkids.com/missingkids/servlet/NewsEventServlet?LanguageCountry=en_US&PageId=3081

  • National Center for Missing and Exploited Children. (2010). Registered sex offenders in the United States. Retrieved from http://www.missingkids.com/en_US/documents/sex-offender-map.pdf

  • Nobles, M. R., Levenson, J. S., & Youstin, T. J. (2012). Effectiveness of residence restrictions in preventing sex offense recidivism. Crime and Delinquency, 58(4), 491–513.

    Google Scholar 

  • Red Bird, B. (2009). Assessing housing availability under Ohio’s sex offender residence restrictions. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redlich, A. D. (2001). Community notification: Perceptions of its effectiveness in preventing child sexual abuse. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 10, 91–116.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roots, R. I. (2004). When laws backfire: Unintended consequences of public policy. American Behavioral Scientist, 47(11), 1376–1394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sample, L. L., Evans, M. K., & Anderson, A. L. (2011). Sex offender community notification laws: Are their effects symbolic or instrumental in nature? Criminal Justice Policy Review, 22(1), 27–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sample, L. L., & Kadleck, C. (2008). Sex offender laws: Legislators’ accounts of the need for policy. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 19(1), 40–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sample, L. L., & Streveler, A. J. (2003). Latent consequences of community notification laws. In S. H. Decker, L. F. Alaird, & C. M. Katz (Eds.), Controversies in criminal justice (pp. 353–362). Los Angeles: Roxbury.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandler, J. C., & Freeman, N. J. (2009). Female sex offender recidivism: A large-scale empirical analysis. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 21(4), 455–473.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandler, J. C., Freeman, N. J., & Socia, K. M. (2008). Does a watched pot boil? A time-series analysis of New York State’s sex offender registration and notification law. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 14(4), 284–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanghara, K. K., & Wilson, J. C. (2006). Stereotypes and attitudes about child sexual abusers: A comparison of experienced and inexperienced professionals in sex offender treatment. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 11, 229–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulenberg, J. L. (2007). Predicting noncompliant behavior: Disparities in the social locations of male and female probationers. Justice Research and Policy, 9(1), 25–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sherif, M., Harvey, O. J., White, B. J., Hood, W. R., & Sherif, C. W. (1988). The Robbers’ cave experiment: Intergroup conflict and cooperation. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tewksbury, R. (2004). Experiences and attitudes of registered female sex offenders. Federal Probation, 68(3), 30–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tewksbury, R. (2005). Collateral consequences of sex offender registration. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 21(1), 67–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tewksbury, R., & Lees, M. (2006). Consequences of sex offender registration: Collateral consequences and community experiences. Sociological Spectrum, 26(3), 309–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornton, D. (2006). Age and sexual recidivism: A variable connection. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 18(2), 123–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Census Bureau. (2009). Quick facts. Retrieved from http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/00000.html

  • U.S. Department of Justice. (2002). National Incidence Studies of Missing, Abducted, Runaway and Throwaway Children: NISMART.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vandiver, D. M., & Kercher, G. (2004). Offender and victim characteristics of registered female sexual offenders in Texas: A proposed typology of female sexual offenders. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 16(2), 121–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vasquez, B. E., Maddan, S., & Walker, J. T. (2008). The influence of sex offender registration and notification laws in the United States. Crime and Delinquency, 54(2), 175–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, F. P., McShane, M. D., & Dolny, M. H. (2000). Predicting parole absconders. Prison Journal, 80(1), 24–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willis, G., & Grace, R. C. (2008). The quality of community reintegration planning for child molesters: Effects on sexual recidivism. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 20(2), 218–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willis, G., & Grace, R. (2009). Assessment of community reintegration planning for sex offenders: Poor planning predicts recidivism. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36(5), 494–512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, S. C., Aron, A., McLaughlin-Volpe, T., & Ropp, S. A. (1997). The extended contact effect: Knowledge of cross-group friendships and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 73–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zandbergen, P., & Hart, T. C. (2006). Reducing housing options for convicted sex offenders: Investigating the impact of residency restriction laws using GIS. Justice Research and Policy, 8(2), 1–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zandbergen, P., & Hart, T. (2009). Availability and spatial distribution of affordable housing in Miami-Dade County and implications of residency restriction zones for registered sex offenders. Retrieved from http://www.aclufl.org/pdfs/SORRStudy.pdf

  • Zandbergen, P., Levenson, J. S., & Hart, T. (2010). Residential proximity to schools and daycares: An empirical analysis of sex offense recidivism. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(5), 482–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zevitz, R. G., & Farkas, M. A. (2000a). The impact of sex offender community notification on probation/parole in Wisconsin. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 44(1), 8–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zevitz, R. G., & Farkas, M. A. (2000b). Sex offender community notification: Assessing the impact in Wisconsin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zevitz, R. G., & Farkas, M. A. (2000c). Sex offender community notification: Managing high risk criminals or exacting further vengeance? Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 18, 375–391.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zgoba, K., Levenson, J. S., & McKee, T. (2009). Examining the impact of sex offender residence restrictions on housing availability. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 20(1), 91–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zgoba, K., Witt, P., Dalessandro, M., & Veysey, B. (2009). Megan’s Law: Assessing the practical and monetary efficacy. Retrieved from http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/225370.pdf

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Associate Professor of Social Work, Barry University, Miami Shores, FL, USA

    Jill S. Levenson Ph.D., L.C.S.W.

Authors
  1. Jill S. Levenson Ph.D., L.C.S.W.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jill S. Levenson Ph.D., L.C.S.W. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Private Practice, Morro Bay, California, USA

    Amy Phenix

  2. PACIFICA Center, Forensic Psychology Consultations, Wayzata, Minnesota, USA

    Harry M. Hoberman

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Levenson, J.S. (2016). An Evidence-Based Perspective on Sexual Offender Registration and Residential Restrictions. In: Phenix, A., Hoberman, H. (eds) Sexual Offending. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2416-5_38

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation