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Civilising the Exception: Universally Defining Terrorism

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Post 9/11 and the State of Permanent Legal Emergency

Part of the book series: Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice ((IUSGENT,volume 14))

Abstract

The first part of this chapter assesses whether there is now an accepted definition of terrorism in general international law, in the wake of a decision by the UN Special Tribunal for Lebanon in 2011, which declared the existence of an international crime of transnational terrorism. This chapter concludes that there is insufficient evidence of a customary international law definition of terrorism, largely because there is too much inconsistency and divergence in the material sources of law such as international and regional treaties, national laws and judicial decisions, and United Nations resolutions. There are nonetheless good international public policy reasons for defining terrorism, to protect important community values and interests. Those policy reasons can illuminate the proper approach to the technical problem of defining the elements of terrorism, particularly in ways which do not interfere with other important global values, such as human rights and humanitarian law. In this context, the chapter explores the advantages and costs of defining terrorism in certain ways.

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Notes

  1. 1.

     See B. Saul, “The Legal Response of the League of Nations to Terrorism,” Journal of International Criminal Justice 4 (2006): 78.

  2. 2.

     UN Special Tribunal for Lebanon (Appeals Chamber), Interlocutory Decision on the Applicable Law: Terrorism, Conspiracy, Homicide, Perpetration, Cumulative Charging, STL-11-01/I, 16 February 2011.

  3. 3.

     Ibidem at para. 85.

  4. 4.

     Ibidem at para. 90.

  5. 5.

     Ibidem at para. 107; see generally paras. 107–9.

  6. 6.

     Including regional anti-terrorism treaties, General Assembly resolutions, UN Security Council resolution 1566 (2004), the UN Draft Comprehensive Anti-Terrorism Convention, the Terrorist Financing Convention 1999, 37 national laws, and nine national judicial decisions.

  7. 7.

     See B. Saul, Defining Terrorism in International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), chapters 3–4; G. Guillaume, “Terrorism and International Law” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 53 (2004): 537; R. Higgins, “The General International Law of Terrorism,” in Terrorism and International Law, ed. R. Higgins and M. Flory (London: Routledge, 1997) 13, 13–14.

  8. 8.

     See, e.g., Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft (adopted 14 September 1963, entered into force 4 December 1969, 704 UNTS 219); Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (adopted 16 December 1970, entered into force 14 October 1971, 860 UNTS 105); Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents (adopted 14 December 1973, entered into force 20 February 1977, 1035 UNTS 167); International Convention against the Taking of Hostages (adopted 17 December 1979, entered into force 3 June 1983, 1316 UNTS 205); Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation (adopted 10 March 1988, entered into force 1 March 1992, 1678 UNTS 221); Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf (adopted 10 March 1988, entered into force 1 March 1992, 1678 UNTS 304); Protocol on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation (adopted 24 February 1988, entered into force 6 August 1989, 974 UNTS 177); Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection (adopted 1 March 1991, entered into force 21 June 1998); 1997 International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings (adopted 15 December 1997 by UN General Assembly Resolution 52/164 (1997), entered into force 23 May 2001, 2149 UNTS 256); International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (adopted 9 December 1999 by UN General Assembly resolution 54/109, entered into force 10 April 2002, 2178 UNTS 229); International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (adopted 13 April 2005 by UN General Assembly Resolution 59/290 (2005), entered into force 7 July 2007).

  9. 9.

     Report of the Special Rapporteur (Martin Scheinin) on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2006/98, 28 December 2005, para. 28.

  10. 10.

     US v Yunis, 924 F.2d 1086 (DC Cir 1991), 1092; (1991) 30 ILM 403; Burnett et al. v Al Baraka Investment and Development Corporation et al., Civil Action No 02–1616 (JR), US District Crt, Distr Columbia, 25 July 2003, 274 F Supp 2d 86.

  11. 11.

     See B. Saul, Defining Terrorism in International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), chapter 4.

  12. 12.

     1971 OAS Convention to Prevent and Punish Acts of Terrorism Taking the Form of Crimes against Persons and Related Extortion that are of International Significance; 2002 Inter-American Convention against Terrorism.

  13. 13.

    Arab Convention for the Suppression of Terrorism; Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) Convention on Combating International Terrorism; 1999 OAU Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism; 2002 EU Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism.

  14. 14.

    Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism; 2004 SAARC Additional Protocol to the 1987 Convention; 2004 African Union Protocol to the 1999 Convention.

  15. 15.

    Inter-American Convention against Terrorism; 1977 Council of Europe Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism; 1987 SAARC Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism; 1999 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Treaty on Cooperation in Combating Terrorism.

  16. 16.

    As with the Organisation of the Islamic States.

  17. 17.

    As with the Organisation of African Unity.

  18. 18.

    The 1994 Declaration states that: ‘Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them’.

  19. 19.

    UNGA Resolution 49/60 (9 December 1994): Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, para. 12.

  20. 20.

     UNGAOR (49th Session) (6th Committee), 14th meeting, 20 October 1994, para. 5 (Sudan), 13 (India), 27 (Algeria), 71 (Nepal); 15th meeting, 21 October 1994, para. 4 (Sri Lanka), 9 (Iran), 18–19 (Libya).

  21. 21.

     Ibidem, 14th meeting, 20 October 1994, para. 6 (Sudan), 20 (Syria), 24 (Pakistan); 15th meeting, 21 October 1994, para. 9 (Iran), 18–19 (Libya).

  22. 22.

     Non-Aligned Movement (‘NAM’), XIV Ministerial Conference, Final Document, Durban, 17–19 August 2004, paras. 98–99, 101–102, 104; NAM, XIII Conf of Heads of State or Government, Final Document, Kuala Lumpur, 25 February 2003, paras. 105–06, 108, 115; NAM, XIII Ministerial Conf, Final Document, Cartagena, 8–9 April 2000, paras. 90–91; OIC resolutions 6/31-LEG (2004), para. 5; 7/31-LEG (2004), preamble, paras. 1–2; 6/10-LEG(IS) (2003), para. 5; 7/10-LEG (IS) (2003), paras. 1–2; OIC, Islamic Summit Conference (10th Session), Final Communiqué, Malaysia, 16–17 October 2003, para. 50; OIC (Extraordinary Session Foreign Ministers), Declaration on International Terrorism, Kuala Lumpur, 1–3 April 2002, paras. 8, 11, 16 and Plan of Action, paras. 2–3.

  23. 23.

     Cf. STL Appeals Chamber Decision, op cit, paras. 91–98.

  24. 24.

     Cf. ibidem at para. 97 (citing 37 national laws which it claims converge on a consensus definition).

  25. 25.

     See analysis in B. Saul, Defining Terrorism in International Law (Oxford, 2006), 263–269.

  26. 26.

     Under article 15 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966. For human rights critiques of national laws, see, eg, UN Human Rights Committee, Concluding Observations: United States of America (15 September 2006) UN Doc. CCPR/C/USA/CO/3, para. 11; Algeria (18 August 1998) UN Doc. CCPR/C/79/Add.95, para. 11; Egypt (9 August 1993) UN Doc CCPR/C/79/Add.23, para. 8; Democratic Peoples’ Republic of Korea (27 August 2001) UN Doc. CCPR/CO/72/PRK, para. 14; Portugal (Macao) (4 November 1999) UN Doc. CCPR/C/79/Add.115, para. 12; Peru (25 July 1996) UN Doc. CCPR /C/79/Add.67, para. 12; and Report of the Special Rapporteur (Martin Scheinin) on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2006/98, 28 December 2005, paras. 27–28, 45–47, 56, 62.

  27. 27.

     STL Appeals Chamber Decision, op cit, para. 86.

  28. 28.

     US v Yousef et al., 327 F.3d 56 (US Crt App, 2nd Cir), 4 April 2003 at 34, 44, 46, 53–60, affirming Tel-Oren v Libyan Arab Republic 726 F.2d 774 (DC Cir 1984) at 795 (Edwards J) and 806–07 (Bork J) (USA); Ghaddafi case, Bulletin des arret de la Cour de Cassation, Chambre criminelle, mar 2001, No. 64, 218–219; Madan Singh v State of Bihar [2004] INSC 225 (2 April 2004).

  29. 29.

     Chile v Clavel, quoted in STL Appeals Chamber Decision, op cit.

  30. 30.

     Cavallo, quoted in STL Appeals Chamber Decision, op cit, para. 86; US v Yunis, 924 F.2d 1086 (DC Cir 1991); EHL case, Cass. 15 février 2006, RG P.05.1594.F, Pas. 2006, No. 96; RDP2006, 795, cited in Rapport annuele la Cour de cassation de Belgique 2009.

  31. 31.

     Zrig v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) (CA) [2003] 3 FC 761, para. 180.

  32. 32.

     Zrig, ibidem; US v Yunis, 924 F.2d 1086 (DC Cir 1991).

  33. 33.

    Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law, 6th ed. ( Oxford: Oxford University Press 2003), 22 (speaking of the value of national decisions generally).

  34. 34.

     Almog v Arab Bank, 471 F. Supp. 2d 257 (EDNY 2007)

  35. 35.

     EHL case, op cit.

  36. 36.

     Al-Sirri v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2009] EWCA Civ 364.

  37. 37.

     Suresh v Canada (Minister for Immigration and Citizenship) [2002] 1 SCR 3 at 53, para. 94.

  38. 38.

     Bouyahia Maher Ben Abdelaziz et al., Judgment of 11 October 2006, Corte di Cassazione.

  39. 39.

     See, eg, B. Saul, “The Curious Element of Motive in Definitions of Terrorism: Essential Ingredient – Or Criminalizing Thought?,” in Law and Liberty in the War on Terror, ed. A. Lynch, E. MacDonald and G. Williams,(Sydney: Federation Press 2007), 28.

  40. 40.

     Defined as: ‘criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act, which constitute offences within the scope of and as defined in the international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism’.

  41. 41.

     Including the UN Human Rights Committee, various Special Rapporteurs, the Human Rights Council, and the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights. See, e.g., UN Human Rights Committee, General Comment 29, States of Emergency (article 4), 31 August 2001; UN Commission on Human Rights, Resolutions 2003/37 (2003) and 2005/80 (2005); UN Human Rights Council, Resolutions 7/7 (2008), 10/9 (2009), 10/11 (2009), 10/15 (2009), 10/22 (2009). Reports of the Special Rapporteur on Terrorism and Human Rights (Kalliopi K. Koufa): Working Paper, 26 June 1997; Preliminary Report, 7 June 1999, Progress report, 27 June 2001, Second Progress Report, 17 July 2002, Additional progress report, 8 August 2003, Final Report, 25 June 2004, Updated framework draft of principles and guidelines concerning human rights and terrorism: Second expanded working paper, 3 August 2006. Report of the independent expert (Robert K. Goldman) on the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, 7 February 2005. Reports of the Special Rapporteur (Martin Scheinin) on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism: Report to the Commission on Human Rights, 28 December 2005; Reports to the General Assembly, 16 August 2006, 15 August 2007, 6 August 2008; Reports to the Human Rights Council, 29 January 2007, 21 November 2007, 4 February 2009. Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Report to the UN Human Rights Council on the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, 2 September 2009.

  42. 42.

     See B. Saul, Defining Terrorism in International Law (Oxford, 2006), chapter 3.

  43. 43.

     UNGA (56th Sess) (6th Cttee), Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism: Working Group Report, 29 Oct 2001, UN Doc A/C.6/56/L.9, annex I, 16 (informal Coordinator texts).

  44. 44.

     Ancillary offences are found in Draft Comprehensive Convention, ibidem, art. 2(2), (3) and (4)(a)–(c).

  45. 45.

     See B. Saul, Defining Terrorism in International Law (Oxford, 2006), chapter 1.

  46. 46.

     Ibidem.

  47. 47.

     J. Lambert, Terrorism and Hostages in International Law: A Commentary on the Hostages Convention 1979 (Cambridge: Grotius 1990), 49.

  48. 48.

     1999 Terrorist Financing Convention, art 2(1)(b).

  49. 49.

     Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (Australia), Supplementary Submission to the Security Legislation Review Committee (2006), 8.

  50. 50.

     Lambert, Terrorism and Hostages in International Law…, at 50.

  51. 51.

     G. Levitt, “Is ‘Terrorism’ Worth Defining?,” Ohio Northern University Law Review 13 (1986): 97 at 115.

  52. 52.

     Ibidem.

  53. 53.

     J. Habermas, “Fundamentalism and Terror: A Dialogue with Jürgen Habermas,” in Philosophy in a Time of Terror: Dialogues with Jürgen Habermas and Jacques Derrida, ed. G. Borradori (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2003), 25 at 34.

  54. 54.

     UN General Assembly resolution 49/60 (1994), annexed Declaration, para 3.

  55. 55.

     The European Union also distinguishes organized crime for profit: see EU Council, Joint Action 98/733/JHA of 21 December 1998; 1995 Europol Convention, art 2; EU Council Decision 2002/187/JHA of 28 February 2002.

  56. 56.

     European Commission, Proposal for a Council Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism, 19 September 2001, COM(2001) 521 Final, 2001/0217 (CNS), 6, 7.

  57. 57.

     Parliamentary Joint Committee on Intelligence and Security (Australia), Review of Security and Counter Terrorism Legislation, December 2006, 57. Australia’s independent Security Legislation Review Committee agreed in the same year that the motive element ‘appropriately emphasises a publicly understood quality of terrorism’: Security Legislation Review Committee (Sheller Report), Report tabled in the Australian House of Representatives, 15 June 2006, 57.

  58. 58.

     Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (Australia), op cit, 8.

  59. 59.

     Cited in R v Khawaja, Case No 04-G30282, Ontario Superior Court of Justice (Canada), 24 October 2006, para 66.

  60. 60.

     Rt Hon Lord Lloyd of Berwick, Inquiry into Legislation against Terrorism, vol. 1, CMD3420, xi.

  61. 61.

     2000 UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 55/25 (2000) on 15 November 2000, entered into force 29 September 2003), arts 2 and 5.

  62. 62.

     UN General Assembly resolution 55/25 (2000), para. 7.

  63. 63.

     Cf the Australian Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth), s 100.1, which defines a threat to commit a terrorist act as a terrorist act in itself, thus blurring essentially different gradations of criminal harm.

  64. 64.

     1999 Terrorist Financing Convention, art 2(1)(b); see also UNSC resolution 1566(2004); UN High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility (2004); UN Secretary-General, In larger freedom: towards development, security and human rights for all, UNGA (59th Sess), 21 March 2005, UN Doc A/59/2005; UN Draft Comprehensive Convention, art 2(1).

  65. 65.

     In the UK, it is enough merely to ‘influence’ a government: Terrorism Act 2000 (UK), s 1(b).

  66. 66.

     2002 EU Framework Decision, art 1(1).

  67. 67.

     Terrorism Suppression Act 2002 (NZ), s 5(2)(a)–(b).

  68. 68.

     1937 League of Nations Convention, art 1(2); 1991 ILC Draft Code of Offences against the Peace and Security of Mankind, art 24; 1998 Draft Rome Statute, art 5.

  69. 69.

     UNSC res 1566 (2004); 1994 UNGA Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism.

  70. 70.

     UNGA resolutions 49/60 (1994), annexed Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism.

  71. 71.

     1963 Tokyo Convention, art 1(3); 1970 Hague Convention, art 3(4)–(5); 1971 Montreal Convention, art 4(2)–(4); 1988 Rome Convention, art 4(1)–(2); 1973 Protected Persons Convention, art 1(a)–(b); 1979 Hostages Convention, art 13; 1980 Vienna Convention, art 2(1)–(2); 1991 Montreal Convention, arts 2–3.

  72. 72.

     Common art 3 to those conventions.

  73. 73.

     See B. Saul, “Defending Terrorism: Justifications and Excuses for Terrorism in International Criminal Law,” Australian Yearbook of International Law 25 (2006): 177.

  74. 74.

     See, eg, Canadian Criminal Code s 83.01(1)(E); Australian Criminal Code s 100.1(3); Terrorism Suppression Act 2002 (New Zealand), s 5(5).

  75. 75.

     M. Brown, “‘No war’ sail painters sent for trial,” Sydney Morning Herald, 16 July 2003.

  76. 76.

     See H. Gasser, “Acts of Terror, ‛Terrorism’ and International Humanitarian Law,” International Review of the Red Cross 84 (2002): 547.

  77. 77.

     Prosecutor v Galic, ICTY-98-29-T (5 December 2003), paras. 65–66; affirmed in Prosecutor v Galic (Appeals Chamber Judgment), IT-98-29-A, 30 November 2006, paras. 87–90. See also B. Saul, “Crimes and Prohibitions of ‘Terror’ and ‘Terrorism’ in Armed Conflict: 1919–2005,” Journal of the International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict 4 (2005): 264.

  78. 78.

     See, eg, Report of the UN Secretary-General’s Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka, 31 March 2011; G. Weiss, The Cage: The Fight for Sri Lanka and the Last Days of the Tamil Tigers (Australia: Picador, 2011).

  79. 79.

     M. C. Bassiouni, “A Policy-Oriented Inquiry into the Different Forms and Manifestations of ‘International Terrorism’,” in Legal Responses to International Terrorism, ed. M. C. Bassiouni, xv, xxxix (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1988).

  80. 80.

     See, eg, S. Jeffery, “Abbas Accuses Israel of “Terrorist” Attack,” Guardian, 10 June 2003; AFP, ‘Mossad switches from analysis to action’, Sydney Morning Herald, 4 April 2003; W. Pincus, “Yemen aided CIA strike on 6 Al Qaeda suspects,” International Herald Tribune, 7 November 2002; J. Risen and D. Johnston, “Bush has Widened Authority of CIA to Kill Terrorists’, New York Times, 15 December 2002; D. Priest, “Drone Missile Kills al-Qaeda Suspect,” Sydney Morning Herald, 16 May 2005 (possibly in Pakistan and outside the conflict in Afghanistan). Where committed in armed conflict, the targeting of civilians not taking an active part in hostilities (or after they have taken part) would amount to a war crime: Cassese, A, Expert Opinion on Whether Israel’s Targeted Killings of Palestinian Terrorists is Consonant with International Humanitarian Law, prepared for the petitioners in the Public Committee against Torture et al. v Israel et al., available at www.stoptorture.org.il (21 Dec 2005); but see Kretzmer, D, ‘Targeted Killing of Suspected Terrorists: Extra-Judicial Executions or Legitimate Means of Defence?’ (2005) 16 European Journal of International Law 171.

  81. 81.

     N. Hopkins and R. Cowan, “Scandal of Ulster’s Secret War,” Guardian, 17 April 2003.

  82. 82.

     I. Primoratz, “State Terrorism and Counter-terrorism,” in Terrorism: The Philosophical Issues, ed. I. Primoratz (Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 113, 114.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Sydney Centre for International Law, Faculty of Law, The University of Sydney, Law Building F10, Sydney, NSW, Australia

    Ben Saul

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  1. , Comparative Legal History, University of Valencia, Avda. de los Naranjos, Valencia, 46071, Spain

    Aniceto Masferrer

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Saul, B. (2012). Civilising the Exception: Universally Defining Terrorism. In: Masferrer, A. (eds) Post 9/11 and the State of Permanent Legal Emergency. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol 14. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4062-4_4

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