Abstract
This chapter may be similar to Don Quixote’s quest in attempting the impossible, but it aims simply to attack the very common misconception that lichens are a classic example of mutualistic symbiosis between an alga and a fungus. That classic concept as a generalization is wrong both in terms of the assumed mutualism and in terms of the assumed bilateral partnership (see e.g., Ahmadjian and Jacobs, 1981). Although the classic concept is wrong on both fronts, the notion that lichens are fascinating, sometimes challenging, examples of symbiosis with parallels to the exquisite endosymbiosis of eukaryotic cells is certainly valid and lichens are intriguing organisms that some people fear are doubly in danger of losing scientific attention as organismal biology continues to ebb at research and educational institutions around the world. With declining focus on both mycology and phycology, lichenology would be expected to share in a decline in research attention. That decline in attention would be especially ironic in this time of global climate change, since “lichens are among the most sensitive organisms responding to global warming” (Aptroot and van Herk, 2007).
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahmadjian, V. (1993) The Lichen Symbiosis. Wiley, New York.
Ahmadjian, V. and Jacobs, J.B. (1981) Relationship between fungus and alga in the lichen Cladonia cristatella Tuck. Nature 289: 169–172.
Aptroot, A. and van Herk, C.M. (2007) Further evidence of the effects of global warming on lichens, particularly those with Trentepohlia phycobionts. Environ. Poll. 146: 293–298.
Blanco, O., Crespo, A., Elix, J.A., Hawksworth, D.L., and Lumbsch, T. (2004) A molecular phylogeny and a new classification of parmeloid lichens containing Xanthoparmelia-type lichenan (Ascomycota: Lecanorales). Taxon 53: 959–975.
Chapman, R.L. (1976) Ultrastructural investigation on the foliicolous pyrenocarpous lichen Strigula elegans (Fée) Müll. Arg. Phycologia 15: 191–196.
Chapman, R.L. (1984) An assessment of the current state of our knowledge of the Trentepohliaceae. Systematics Association, In: D.E.G. Irvine and D.M. John (eds.) Proceedings of the Symposium on Systematics of the Green Algae. Academic Press, London, pp. 233–250.
Chapman, R.L. and Waters, D.A. (2002) Lichenization of the Trentepohliales–complex algae and odd relationships, In: J. Seckbach (ed.) Symbiosis. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 359–371.
Danilov, A.N. (1910) Über das gegenseitige Verhältnis zwischen den Gonidien und den Pilzkomponenten der Flechtensymbiose. I. Morphologische Daten über das gegenseitige Verhältnis der Pilzhyphen und Chlorokokken bei heteromeren Flechten. Bull. Jard. Imp. Bot. St. Petersburg 10: 33–70, f. 1–9, pl. 1–3.
de los Rios, A. and Grube, M. (2000) Host-parasite interfaces of some lichenicolous fungi in the Dacampiaceae (Dothideales, Ascomycota). Mycol. Res. 104: 1348–1353.
Douglas, A.E. (1998) Host benefit and the evolution of specialization in symbiosis. Heredity 81: 599–603.
Fink, B. (1913) The nature and classification of lichens: II. The lichen and its algal host. Mycologia 5: 97–166.
Fink, B. (1914) The relation of the lichen to its algal host. Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 33: 5–10.
Frank, A.B. (1877) Über die biologischen Verhältnisse des Thallus einiger Krustenflechten. Beitr. Biol. Pflanzen 2: 123–200.
Frank, S.A. (1995) The origin of synergistic symbiosis. J. Theor. Biol. 176: 403–410.
Gargas, A., DePriest, P.T., Grube, M. and Tehler, A. (1995) Multiple origins of lichen symbiosis in fungi suggested by SSU rDNA phylogeny. Science 268: 1492–1495.
Goff, L.J. (1982) Symbiosis and parasitism: another viewpoint. BioScience 32: 255–256.
Grube, M. and Hawksworth, D.L. (2007) Trouble with lichen: the re-evaluation and re-interpretation of thallus form and fruit body types in the molecular era. Mycol. Res. 111: 1116–1132.
Grube, M. and Kroken, S. (2000) Molecular approaches and the concept of species and species complexes in lichenized fungi. Mycol. Res. 104: 1284–1294.
Hawksworth, D.L. (1988) The variety of fungal-algal symbioses, their evolutionary significance, and the nature of lichens. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 96: 3–20.
Hill, D. (2001) Lichen and co-ordination of the symbionts. Microbiol. Today 128: 124–127.
Hill, D.J. (1992) An overlooked symbiosis. Photosynth. Res. 34: 339–340.
Hill, D.J. (1994) The nature of the symbiotic relationship in lichens. Endeavor 18: 96–103.
Honegger, R. (1991) Functional aspects of the lichen symbiosis. Ann. Rev. Pl. Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 42: 553–578.
Honegger, R. (1992) Lichens: Mycobiont-photobiont relationships, In: W. Reisser (ed.) Algae and Symbioses: Plants, Animals, Fungi, Viruses, Interactions Explored. Biopress, Bristol, pp. 255–276.
Honegger, R. (2000) Great discoveries in bryology and lichenology: Simon Schwender (1829–1919) and the dual hypothesis of lichens. Bryologist 103: 307–313.
Hyvarinen, M., Hardling, R. and Tuomi, J. (2002) Cyanobacterial lichen symbiosis: the fungal partner as an optimal harvester. Oikos 98: 498–504.
Kranner, I., Cram, W.J., Zorn, M., Wornik, S., Yoshimur, I., Stabentheiner, E. and Pfeifhofer, H.W. (2005) Antioxidants and photoprotection in a lichen as compared with its isolated symbiotic partners. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102: 3141–3146.
Lakatos, M., Lange-Bertalot, H. and Budel, B. (2004) Diatoms living inside the thallus of the green algal lichen Coenogonium linkii in neotropical lowland rainforests. J. Phycol. 40: 70–73.
Lange, O.L. and Wagenitz, G. (2003) What is a ‘phycolichen’? Differences and changes in the meaning of an old lichenological term. Lichenologist 35: 341–345.
Lewin, R.A. (1982) Symbiosis and parasitism – definitions and evaluations. BioScience 32: 254–259.
Matthews, S.W., Tucker, S.C. and Chapman R.L. (1989) Ultrastructural features of mycobionts and trentepohliaceous phycobionts in selected subtropical crustose lichens. Bot. Gat. 150: 417–438.
Meier, J.L. and Chapman, R.L. (1983) Ultrastructure of the lichen Coenogonium interplexum Nyl. Am. J. Bot. 70: 400–407.
Peirce, G.T. (1899) The nature of the association of alga and fungus in lichens. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. Bot. III. 1: 207–2040, pl. 41.
Piercey-Normore, M.D. and DePriest, P.T. (2001) Alga switching among lichen symbioses. Am. J. Bot. 88: 1490–1498.
Richardson, D.H.S. (1999) War in the world of lichens: parasitism and symbiosis as exemplified by lichens and lichenicolous fungi. Mycol. Res. 103: 641–650.
Sanders, W.B. (2004) Bacteria, algae, and phycobionts: maintaining useful concepts and terminology. The Lichenologist 36: 269–275.
Sanders, W.B. (2006) A feeling for the superorganism: expression of plant form in the lichen thallus. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 150: 89–99.
Sanders, W.B. and Lucking, R. (2002) Reproductive strategies, relichenization and thallus development observed in situ in leaf-dwelling lichen communities. New Phytol. 155: 425–435.
Wallroth, F.W. (1825) Naturgeschichte der Flechten 1, I–XX, 1–722. Frankfurt a. M., Frederich Wilman.
Yamamura, N. (1996) Evolution of mutualistic symbiosis: a differential equation model. Res. Pop. Ecol. 38: 211–218.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Chapman, R.L., Chapman, M.R. (2010). Green Algae and Fungi in Lichens:. In: Seckbach, J., Grube, M. (eds) Symbioses and Stress. Cellular Origin, Life in Extreme Habitats and Astrobiology, vol 17. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9449-0_28
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9449-0_28
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-90-481-9448-3
Online ISBN: 978-90-481-9449-0
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)