SpringerLink
Log in

Introduction

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Lichens to Biomonitor the Environment

Abstract

Lichens are composite organisms comprised of a fungus and one or more algae living together in symbiotic association in which the algal partner produces essential nutrients for the fungal partner through photosynthesis, while the fungal partner provides mechanical support to the algal partner. Development and establishment of lichen on a substratum is achieved by fruiting bodies (apothecia) produced by the fungal partner, which must germinate and find an algal partner before they can form a new lichen thallus or may produce minute fragments (as finger-like outgrowths, isidia or sugar-like granules, soredia) containing both partners, which can disperse quickly and colonise available habitats. Being pioneers on rock surface lichens are important component of the ecosystem that establishes life on rock and barren disturbed sites. As lichens colonise rocks, they trap dust, silt and water which leads to biogeophysical and biogeochemical weathering of the rock surface leading to soil formation. Lichens occur in all available substrata and in all possible climatic conditions, but the lichen diversity of an area of interest or substratum is highly dependent on prevalent microclimatic conditions. Apart from morphology and anatomy of lichens, the high success of lichens in extreme climates has been attributed to the secondary metabolites produced by the fungal partner to protect the algal partner. This chapter discusses the unique characteristics about lichens which facilitate their survival in extreme climates and makes them an ideal organism for ecosystem monitoring.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
EUR 29.95
Price includes VAT (France)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
EUR 85.59
Price includes VAT (France)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
EUR 105.49
Price includes VAT (France)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
EUR 105.49
Price includes VAT (France)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ahmadjian V (1993) The lichen symbiosis. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Ascaso C, Galvan J, Ortega C (1976) The pedogenic action of Parmelia conspersa, Rhizocarpon geographicum and Umbilicaria pustulata. Lichenologist 8:151–171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ascaso C, Galvan J, Rodriguez P (1982) The weathe-ring of calcareous rocks by lichens. Pedobiologia 24:219–229

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Awasthi DD (2000) A hand book of lichens. Bishan Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayub A (2005) Lichen flora of some major historical monuments & buildings of Uttar Pradesh. PhD thesis, Dr. R. M. L. Avadh University, Faizabad

    Google Scholar 

  • Bajpai A (2007) Taxonomic & ecological studies on lichens of Bhimbetka world Heritage zone, Raisen district, M. P. PhD thesis, Lucknow University, Lucknow

    Google Scholar 

  • Bajpai R (2009) Studies on lichens of some monuments of Madhya Pradesh with reference to Biodeterioration and Biomonitoring. PhD thesis, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow

    Google Scholar 

  • Bech-Andersen J (1987) Oxalic acid production by lichens causing deterioration of natural and artificial stones. In: Morthor LHG (ed) Proceedings of the biodeterioration society meeting on biodeterioration of constructional materials, Delft, pp 9–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Beeh-Andersen J (1986) Oxalic acid production by lichens causing deterioration of natural and artificial stones. In: Prceedings of the biodeterioration Society Meeting on Biodeterioration of constructional materilas (L.H.G. Morthon, ed.), Delft, pp 9–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Beschel RE (1961) Dating rock surfaces by lichen growth and its application to glaciology and physiography (lichenometry). In: Raasch GO (ed) Geology of the Arctic, vol 2. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, pp 1044–1062

    Google Scholar 

  • Bobritskaya MA (1950) Absorbtion of mineral elements by lithophilic vegetation on massive crystalline rock. Tr Pochv Inst Akand Nauk SSSR 34:5–27

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bravery AF (1981) Preservation in the conservation industry. In: Russell AD, Hugo WB, Ayliffe AJ (eds) Principles & practices of disinfection, preservation & sterilization. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, pp 370–402

    Google Scholar 

  • Brightman FH, Seaward MRD (1977) Lichens of man-made substrates. In: Seaward MRD (ed) Lichen ecology. Academic Press, London/New York/San Francisco, pp 253–293

    Google Scholar 

  • Brodo IM (1973) Substrate ecology. In: Ahmadjian V, Hale ME (eds) The Lichens. Academic, New York, pp 401–441

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Büdel B (1987) Zur Biologie und Systematik der Flechtengattungen Heppia und Peltula im sü dlichen Afrika. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 23:1–105

    Google Scholar 

  • Büdel B (1990) Anatomical adaptations to the semiarid/arid environment in the lichen genus Peltula. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 38:47–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Büdel B, Lange OL (1991) Water status of green and blue green algal photobiont in lichen thalli after hydration by water vapour uptake: do they become turgid. Botanica Acta 104:361–366

    Google Scholar 

  • Büdel B, Scheidegger DC (2008) Thallus morphology and anatomy. In: Nash TH III (ed) Lichen biology, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 40–68

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Caneva G, Salvadori O (1988) Biodeterioration of stone. In: Lazzarini L, Pieper R (eds) Deterioration and conservation of stone, Studies and documents on the cultural heritage, no 16. UNESCO, Paris, pp 182–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaffer RJ (1972) The weathering of natural stones. DSIR building research special report No. 18, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Charola AE (1993) General report on prevention & treatment, cleaning, biocides & mortars. In: Actes of the congreee International Sur la conservation de la Pierse at autres Materiauxe, UNESCO, 29-6-1-07,1993, Paris, pp 65–68

    Google Scholar 

  • Chatterjee S, Sinha GP, Upreti DK, Singh A (1996) Preliminary observations on lichens growing over some Indian monuments. Flora Fauna 2(1):1–4

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen J, Blume H, Bayer L (2000) Weathering of rocks induced by lichens colonization – a review. Catena 39:121–146

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Culberson CF (1969) Chemical and botanical guide to lichen products. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahlman L, Palmqvist K (2003) Growth in two foliose tripartite lichens, Nephroma arcticum and Peltigera aphthosa: empirical modelling of external vs internal factors. Funct Ecol 17:821–831

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Danin A, Gerson R, Marton K, Garty J (1982) Pattern of lime stone and dolomite weathering by lichens and blue green algae and their palaeoclimatic significance. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 37:221–233

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Danin A, Gerson R, Garty J (1983) Weathering patterns on hard limestone and dolomite by endolithic lichens and cyanobacteria: supporting evidence for eolian contribution to Terra Rossa soil. Soil Sci 136:213–217

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Degelius G (1964) Biological studies of the epiphytic vegetation on twigs of Fraxinus excelsior. Acta Horti Gotoburg 27:11–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Dietz S, Büdel B, Lange OL, Bilger W (2000) Transmittance of light through the cortex of lichens from contrasting habitats. In: Schroeter B, Schlensog M, Green TGA (eds) Aspects in cryptogamic research. Contributions in honour of Ludger Kappen. Gebrü der Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung, Berlin, pp 171–182

    Google Scholar 

  • Emerson FW (1947) Basic botany. McGraw-Hill (Blakiston), New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Erick MJ, Grossl PR, Golden DC, Sparks DL, Ming DW (1996) Dissolution kinetics of a lunar glass simultant at 298K. The effect of Ph and organic acids. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 58:4259–4279

    Google Scholar 

  • Euler WD (ed) (1939) Effect of sulphur dioxide on vegetation. National Research Council Canada, Ottawa

    Google Scholar 

  • Esslinger TL (1977) A chemosystematic revision of the brown Parmeliae. J Hattori Botanical Lab 42:1–211

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evdokimova TI (1957) Soil formation processes on metamorphic rocks of Karelia. Pochvovedenie 9:60–69

    Google Scholar 

  • Fry EJ (1922) Some types of endolithic limestone lichens. Ann Bot 36:541–562

    Google Scholar 

  • Fry EJ (1924) A suggested explanation of the mechanical action of lithophytes lichens on rock (shale.). Ann Bot 38:175–196

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fry EJ (1927) The mechanical action of crustaceous lichens on substrata of shale, schist, gneiss, limestone, and obsidian. Ann Bot 41:437–460

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gayathri P (1980) Effect of lichens on granite statues. Birla Archaeol Cult Res Inst Res Bull 2:41–52

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Golubic S, Friedmann EI, Schneier J (1981) The lithobiotic ecological niche, with special reference to microorganism. J Sediment Petrol 51:475–478

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffin PS, Indicator N, Kostler RJ (1991) The biodeterioration of stone: a review of deterioration mechanism, conservation case histories & treatment. Int Biodeterior Spec Issues Biodeterior Cult Prop 28:187–207

    Google Scholar 

  • Guillitte O (1995) Bioreceptivity: a new concept for building ecology studies. Sci Total Environ 167:215–220

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hale ME (1961) Lichen handbook. Smithsonian Institute, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Hale ME (1983) The biology of lichens, 3rd edn. Edward Arnold, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawksworth DL (1988) The fungal partner. In: Galun M (ed) CRC handbook of lichenology, vol 1. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 35–38

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawksworth DL (2001) Do lichens protect or damage stonework? Mycol Res 105:386

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Honegger R (1991) Haustoria-like structures and hydrophobic cell wall surface layers in lichens. In: Mendgen K, Lesemann DE (eds) Electron microscopy of plant pathogens. Springer, Berlin, pp 277–290

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Honegger R (2008) Morphogenesis. In: Nash TH (ed) Lichen biology, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 69–93

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hyvert G (1978) Weathering & restoration of Borobudur Temple, Indonesia. In: Winkler EM (ed) Decay & preservation of stone, Engineering geology case histories No.11. Geological Society of America, Boulder, pp 95–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson TA, Keller WD (1970) A comparative study of the role of lichens and “inorganic” processes in the chemical weathering of recent Hawaiian lava flows. Am J Sci 269:446–466

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jahns HM (1984) Morphology, reproduction and water relations – a system of morphogenetic interactions in Parmelia saxatilis. Nova Hedwigia 79:715–737

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain AK (2001) Biodeterioration of rock cut images at Gwalior fort. In: Agarwal OP, Dhawan S, Pathak N (eds) Studies in biodeterioration of material. ICCI & ICBCP, Lucknow, pp 59–68

    Google Scholar 

  • Joffe JS (1949) Pedology. Pedology Publications, New Brunswick

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalgutkar RM, Bird CD (1969) Lichens found on Larix lyallii and Pinus albicaulis in South Western Alberta, Canada. Can J Bot 47:627–648

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keller ND, Frederickson AF (1957) Role of plants & colloidal acids in the mechanism of weathering. Am J Sci 250:594–608

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koestler RJ, Brimblecomb P, Camuffo D, Ginell W, Graedel T, Leavengood P, Petuskhova J, Steiger M, Urzi C, Verges-Belmin Warscheid T (1994) Group report: how do external environmental factors accelerate change? In: Krumbien WK, Brimblecombe P, Cosgrove DE, Stauforth S (eds) Durability & change. Wiley, Chichester, pp 149–163

    Google Scholar 

  • Koestler RJ, Warscheid T, Nieto F (1997) Biodeterioration risk factor & their management. In: Baer NS, Snethlage R (eds) Saving our cultural heritage. The conversation of historic stone structure. Wiley, New York, pp 25–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Lange OL, Büdel B, Meyer A, Kilian E (1993) Further evidence that activation of net photosynthesis by dry cyanobacterial lichens requires liquid water. Lichenologist 25:175–189

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis FJ, May E, Bravery AF (1985) Isolation and enumeration of autotrophic and heterotrophic bacteria from decayed stone. In: Vth international congress on deterioration & conservation of stone, vol 2. Press Polytechnique Romandes, Lausanne, pp 633–642

    Google Scholar 

  • Lisci M, Monte M, Pacini E (2003) Lichens and higher plants on stone: a review. Int Biodeter Biodegr 51:1–17

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin MAE (ed) (1985) Concise dictionary of biology. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Monte M (1991) Multivariate analysis applied to the conservation of monuments: lichens on the Roman Aqueduct Anio Vetus in S. Gregorio. Int Biodeterior 28:151–163

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nayaka S (2011) Collection, identification and preservation of lichens. In: Workshop on methods and approaches in plant systematics, 5–14 December 2011. CSIR National Botanical Research Institute, pp 93–110

    Google Scholar 

  • Neaman A, Chorover J, Brantley SL (2005) Implication of the evolution of organic acid moieties for basalt weathering over ecological time. Am J Sci 305:147–185

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peršoh D (2004) Diversity of lichen inhabiting fungi in the Letharietum vulpinae. In: Randlane T, Saag A (eds) Lichens in focus. Tartu University Press, Tartu, p 34

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinna D (1993) Fungal physiology & the formation of calcium oxalate film on stone monuments. Aerobiologia 9:157–167

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polynov BB (1945) The first stages of soil formation on massive crystalline rocks. Pochcowdenie 7, 327–339 (Israel program for technical translations Cat. No. 1350)

    Google Scholar 

  • Saiz-Jimenez C (1981) Weathering of building material of the Giralda (Seville, Spain) by Lichens. In: Proceedings of the 6th triennial meeting ICOM committee for conservation, Ottawa, 4 October 1981

    Google Scholar 

  • Saiz-Jimenez C (1994) Biodeterioration of stone in historic buildings & monuments. In: Liewellyn GC, Dashek WW, Rear CEO (eds) Biodeterioration research 4: Mycotoxins, wood decay, plant stress, Biocorrosion and general biodeterioration. Plenum, New York, pp 587–603

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Saiz-Jimenez C (1995) Deposition of anthropogenic compounds on monuments & their effect on airborne microorganism. Aerobiologia 11:161–175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saiz-Jimenez C (2001) The biodeterioration of building materials. In: Stoecker J II (ed) A practical manual on microbiologically influenced corrosion, vol 2. NACE, Houston, pp 4.1–4.20

    Google Scholar 

  • Salter JW (1856) On some reaction of oxalic acid. Chem Gaz 14:130–131

    Google Scholar 

  • Salvadori O, Zitelli A (1981) Monohydrate and dihidrate calcium oxalate in living lichen incrustation biodeteriorating marble columns of the basilica of S. Maria Assunta on the island of Torecello (Venice). In: Rossi Manaresi R (ed) Proceeding of IInd international symposium the conservation of stone II. Centro per la Conservazione delle Sculture all Aperto, Bologna, pp 759–767

    Google Scholar 

  • Saxena S, Upreti DK, Singh A, Singh KP (2004) Observation on lichens growing on artifacts in the Indian subcontinents. In: St. Clair L, Seaward M (eds) Biodeterioration of stone surface. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 181–193

    Google Scholar 

  • Schatz A (1962) Pedogenic (soil-forming) activity of lichens acids. Naturwissenchaften 59:518–522

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schatz A (1963) Soil microorganisms & soil chelation. The pedogenic action of lichens & lichen acids. Agric Food Chem 11:112–118

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seaward MRD (1976) Performance of Lecanora muralis in an urban environment. In: Brown DH, Hawksworth DL, Bailey RH (eds) Lichenology: progress and problems. Academic, London, pp 323–357

    Google Scholar 

  • Seaward MRD (1979) Lower plants & the urban landscape. Urban Ecol 4:217–225

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seaward MRD (1988) Lichens damage to ancient monuments: a case study. Lichenologist 20(3):291–295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seaward MRD, Giacobini C (1991) Lichens as biodeteriorators of archaeological materials with particular reference to Italy. In: Agarwal OP, Dhawan S (eds) Biodeterioration of cultural property. Mac Millan India Ltd., New Delhi, pp 195–206

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh A, Dhawan S (1991) Interesting observation on stone weathering of an Indian monument by lichens. Geophytology 21:119–123

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh A, Upreti DK (1991) Lichen flora of Lucknow with special reference to its historical monuments. In: Agrawal OP, Dhawan S (eds) Biodeterioration of cultural property: proceedings of the international conference on biodeterioration of cultural property, 20–25 February 1989, held at National Research Laboratory for Conservation of Cultural Property, in collaboration with ICCROM and INTACH. Macmillan India, New Delhi, pp 219–231

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh A, Chatterjee S, Sinha GP (1999) Lichens of Indian monuments. In: Mukerjee KG, Chamola BP, Upreti DK, Upadhyaya RK (eds) Biology of lichens. Aravali Book International, New Delhi, pp 115–151

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith DC (1962) The biology of lichen thalli. Biol Rev 37:537–570

    Google Scholar 

  • St. Clair LL, Seaward MRD (2004) Biodeterioration of rock substrata by lichens: progress and problems. In: St. Clair LL, Seaward MRD (eds) Biodeterioration of stone surfaces. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 1–8

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Stebaev IV (1963) Die Veranderung der Tierbevolkerung der Boden im Laufe der Bodenentwicklung auf Felsen und auf Verwitterungsprodukten im Wald-Wiesenlandschaften des Sud-Urals. Pedobiologia 2:265–309 (in Russian)

    Google Scholar 

  • Syers JK (1964) A study of soil formation on carboniferous limestone with particular reference to lichens as pedogenic agents. PhD thesis, University of Durham England

    Google Scholar 

  • Syers JK (1969) Chelating ability of fumarprotocetraric acid and Parmelia conspersa. Plant Soil 31:205–208

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Syers JK, Iskandar IK (1973) Pedogenic significance of lichens. In: Ahamadjian V, Hale ME (eds) The lichens. Academic, New York, pp 225–248

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Syers JK, Birine AC, Mitchell BD (1964) The calcium oxalate content of some lichens growing on lime stone. Lichenologist 3:409–424

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tiano P (1993) Biodeterioration of stone monuments: a critical review. In: Garg KL, Garg N, Mukerji KG (eds) Recent advance in biodterioration and biodegradation, vol 1. Naya Prakashan, Calcutta, pp 301–321

    Google Scholar 

  • Timdal E (1991) A monograph of the genus Toninia (Lecideaceae, Ascomycetes). Opera Bot 110:1–137

    Google Scholar 

  • Topham PB (1977) Colonization, growth succession and competition. In: Seaward MRD (ed) Lichen ecology. Academic Press Inc, London, pp 31–68

    Google Scholar 

  • Tschermak-Woess E (1988) The algal partner. In: Galun M (ed) CRC handbook of lichenology, vol 1. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 39–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Upreti DK (2002) Lichens of Khajuraho temple and nearby area of Mahoba and Chattarpur district. In: Srivastava RB, Mathur GN, Agarwal OP (eds) Proceedings of national seminar on biodeterioration of material- 2. DMSRDE, Kanpur, pp 123–127

    Google Scholar 

  • Upreti DK, Nayaka S, Joshi Y (2004) Lichen activity over rock shelter of Bhimbetka world Heritage Zone, Madhya Pradesh. Rock Art research: changing paradigms. In: The 10th congress of the International Federation of Rock Art Organization (IFRAO) & federation of Rock Art, 28th Nov–2nd Dec 2004. Rock Art Society of India, pp 30–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Urzi C, Krumbein WE (1994) Microbiological impact on cultural heritage. In: Krumbein WE, Brimblecobe P, Consgrove DE, Staniforth S (eds) Durability and change: the Science, responsibility and cost of sustaining cultural heritage. Wiley, New York, pp 107–135

    Google Scholar 

  • Warscheid TH, Braams J (2000) Biodeterioration of stone: a review. Int Biodeter Biodegr 46:343–368

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson MJ, Jones D, McHardy WJ (1981) The weathering of serpentines by Lecanora atra. Lichenologist 13:167–176

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Environmental Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, UP, India

    Vertika Shukla

  2. Lichenology Laboratory, CSIR - National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, UP, India

    D. K. Upreti & Rajesh Bajpai

Authors
  1. Vertika Shukla
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. D. K. Upreti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Rajesh Bajpai
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer India

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Shukla, V., Upreti, D.K., Bajpai, R. (2014). Introduction. In: Lichens to Biomonitor the Environment. Springer, New Delhi. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-1503-5_1

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation