Abstract
Coral bleaching is closely connected with the symbiotic association of dinoflagellate algae. In corals, today the most efficient association is photosymbiosis with the endosymbiont Symbiodinium. Photosymbiosis on the reef explains the amazing success of reefs today and in the geologic past, while the breakdown of this association leads to coral bleaching and the demise of reef ecosystems. Although the symbionts are not preserved in fossil organisms, a variety of direct and indirect criteria are employed to assess their former presence. This assessment indicates that photosymbiosis was a prevalent theme throughout much of the geologic history of reef ecosystems, especially during the time of reefs dominated by scleractinian corals. Such corals appeared and diversified during the Triassic period and toward the end of this period became important reef builders only to experience extinction at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary. Suessiacean dinoflagellates morphologically are close to living Symbiodinium. Parallel trends in diversity and extinction among fossil suessiacean dinoflagellates and scleractinian corals from Late Triassic to Early Jurassic time suggest a symbiotic association. Breakdown of symbiosis was associated with mass extinctions and occurred several times during Mesozoic to Cenozoic time. Closely associated with mass extinctions were massive CO2 injection, ocean acidification, oxygen depletion of the oceans, and other perturbations of the marine environment. Most certainly, the reef environment during these critical times witnessed profound bleaching and loss of photosymbiosis and virtually collapsed. As history is our teacher, we can learn more about the current bleaching crisis among reefs by study of the geologic history of reef ecosystems.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Backhouse J, Balme BE, Helby R, Marshall N, Morgan R (2002) Palynological zonation and correlation of the latest Triassic, Northern Carnarvon Basin. In: Keep M, Moss SJ (eds) The sedimentary basins of Western Australia. Proceedings of Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia Symposium, pp 179–201
Barbeitos MS, Romano SL, Lasker HR (2010) Repeated loss of coloniality and symbiosis in scleractinian corals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107:11877–11882. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0914380107
Bernecker M, Weidlich O (1990) The Danian (Paleocene) coral limestone of Fakse, Denmark: a model for ancient aphotic, azooxanthellate coral mounds. Facies 22:103–138. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02536947
Blank RJ, Trench RK (1985) Speciation and symbiotic dinoflagellates. Science 229:656–659. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.229.4714.656
Brenner W (1992) First results of late Triassic palynology of the Wombat Plateau, northwestern Australia. Proc Ocean Drill Progr Sci Res 122:413–426
Bucefalo Palliani R, Riding JB (1997) Umbriadinium mediterraneense gen. et sp. nov. and Valvaeodinium hirsutum sp. nov.: two dinoflagellate cysts from the lower Jurassic of the Tethyan realm. Palynology 21:197–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/01916122.1997.9989494
Bucefalo Palliani R, Riding JB (2000) Subdivision of the dinoflagellate cyst family Suessiaceae and discussion of its evolution. J Micropalaeontol 19:133–137. https://doi.org/10.1144/jm.19.2.133
Bucefalo Palliani R, Riding JB (2003) Umbriadinium and Polarella: an example of selectivity in the dinoflagellate fossil record. Grana 42:108–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/00173130310012495
Carpenter KE, Abrar M, Aeby G, Aronson RB, Banks S, Chiriboga A et al (2008) One-third of reef-building corals face elevated extinction risk from climate change and local impacts. Science 321:560–563. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1159196
Chen Z-Q, Benton MJ (2012) The timing and pattern of biotic recovery following the end-Permian mass extinction. Nat Geosci 5:375–383. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1475
Coates AG, Jackson JBC (1987) Clonal growth, algal symbiosis and reef formation by corals. Paleobiology 13:363–378. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0094837300008988
Copper P (1989) Enigmas in Phanerozoic reef development. Mem Assoc Australas Paleontol 8:371–385
Copper P (2002) Silurian and Devonian reefs: 80 million years of global greenhouse between two ice ages. In: Flügel E, Kiessling W, Golonka J (eds) Phanerozoic reef patterns. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Tulsa, pp 181–238
Cowen R (1983) Algal symbiosis and its recognition in the fossil record. In: Tevesz MJS, McCall PL (eds) Biotic interactions in recent and fossil benthic communities. Plenum, New York, pp 431–478
Cowen R (1988) The role of algal symbiosis in reefs through time. Palaios 3:221–227. https://doi.org/10.2307/3514532
Cunning R, Silverstein RN, Baker AC (2015) Investigating the causes and consequences of symbiont shuffling in a multi-partner reef coral symbiosis under environmental change. Proc R Soc B 282:20141725. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.1725
D’Hondt S, Pilson MEQ, Sigurdsson H, Hanson AK, Carey S (1994) Surface-water acidification and extinction at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. Geology 22:983–986. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1994)022<0983:SWAAEA>2.3.CO;2
Erwin D (2015) Extinction: how life on earth nearly ended 250 million years ago. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Fautin DG, Buddemeier RW (2004) Adaptive bleaching: a general phenomenon. Hydrobiologia 530/531:459–467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-004-2642-z
Fensome RA, Saldarriaga JF, Taylor FJR (1999) Dinoflagellate phylogeny revisited: reconciling morphological and molecular based phylogenies. Grana 38:66–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/00173139908559216
Fine M, Tchernov D (2007) Scleractinian corals survive and recover from decalcification. Science 317:1811. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1137094
Flügel E (2002) Triassic reef patterns. In: Flügel E, Kiessling W, Golonka J (eds) Phanerozoic reef patterns. Soc Econ Paleontol Mineral, Tulsa, pp 391–463
Flügel E, Senowbari-Daryan B (2001) Triassic reefs of the Tethys. In: Stanley GD Jr (ed) The history and sedimentology of ancient reef systems. Kluwer/Plenum, New York, pp 217–249
Frankowiak K, Wang XT, Sigman DM, Gothmann AM, Kitahara MV, Mazur M et al (2016) Photosymbiosis and the expansion of shallow-water corals. Sci Adv 2:e1601122. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1601122
Gattuso J-P, Allemand D, Frankignoulle M (1999) Photosynthesis and calcification at cellular, organismal and community levels in coral reefs: a review on interactions and control by carbonate chemistry. Am Zool 39:160–183. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/39.1.160
Goreau TJ, Goreau NI (1959) The physiology of skeleton formation in corals. II. Calcium deposition by hermatypic corals under various conditions in the reef. Biol Bull 117:239–250. https://doi.org/10.2307/1538903
Goreau TJ, Goreau NI, Trench RK, Hayes RL (1996) Calcification rates in corals. Science 274:117–118. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.274.5284.117
Goulet TL (2006) Most corals may not change their symbionts. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 321:1–7. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps321001
Gretz M, Lathuilière B, Martini R, Bartolini A (2013) The Hettangian corals of the Isle of Skye (Scotland): an opportunity to better understand the palaeoenvironmental conditions during the aftermath of the Triassic–Jurassic boundary crisis. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 376:132–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.02.029
Hallock P (1997) Reefs and reef limestone in earth history. In: Birkeland C (ed) Life and death of coral reefs. Chapman and Hall, New York, pp 13–42
Hallock P (2001) Coral reefs, carbonate sediments, nutrients, and global change. In: Stanley GD Jr (ed) The history and sedimentology of ancient reef systems. Kluwer/Plenum, New York, pp 388–427
Hautmann M, Benton MJ, Tomaových A (2008) Catastrophic ocean acidification at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary. Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Palaontologie. Abhandlungen 249:119–127. https://doi.org/10.1127/0077-7749/2008/0249-0119
Hochuli PA, Frank SM (2000) Palynology (dinoflagellate cysts, spore-pollen) and stratigraphy of the Lower Carnian Raibl Group in the eastern Swiss Alps. Eclogae Geol Helv 93:429–443
Hodges MS, Stanley GD Jr (2015) North American coral recovery after the end-Triassic mass extinction, New York Canyon, Nevada. GSA Today 25:4–7. https://doi.org/10.1130/GSATG249A.1
Hoegh-Guldberg O (2005) Low coral cover in a high CO2 world. J Geophys Res 110:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JC002528
Houston RM, Huber BT (1998) Evidence of photosymbiosis in fossil taxa? Ontogenetic stable isotope trends in some Late Cretaceous planktonic foraminifera. Mar Micropaleontol 34:29–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0377-8398(97)00038-8
Insalaco E (1996) Upper Jurassic microsolenid biostromes of northern and central Europe: facies and depositional environment. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 121:169–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(95)00072-0
Johnson CC (2002) The rise and fall of rudist reefs. Am Sci 90:148–153. https://doi.org/10.1511/2002.2.148
Johnson CC, Sanders D, Kauffman EG, Hay WW (2001) Patterns and processes influencing upper Cretaceous reefs. In: Flügel E, Kiessling W, Golonka J (eds) Phanerozoic reef patterns. Soc Econ Paleontol Mineral, Tulsa, pp 549–585
Kiessling W (2001) Paleoclimatic significance of Phanerozoic reefs. Geology 29:751–754. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<0751:PSOPR>2.0.CO;2
Kiessling W, Baron-Szabo RC (2004) Extinction and recovery patterns of scleractinian corals at the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 214:195–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.05.025
Kiessling W, Simpson C (2011) On the potential for ocean acidification to be a general cause of ancient reef crises. Glob Chang Biol 17:56–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02204.x
Kiessling W, Roniewicz E, Villier L, Léonide P, Struck U (2009) An early Hettangian coral reef in southern France: implications for the end-Triassic reef crisis. Palaios 24:657–671. https://doi.org/10.2110/palo.2009.p09-030r
Kitahara MV, Cairns SD, Stolarski J, Blair D, Miller DJ (2010) A comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the Scleractinia (Cnidaria, Anthozoa) based on mitochondrial CO1 sequence data. PLoS One 5:e11490. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0011490
Kleypas JA, Buddemeier RW, Gattuso JP (2001) The future of coral reefs in an age of global change. Int J Earth Sci 90:426–437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s005310000125
Kvitt H, Kramarsky-Winter E, Maor-Landaw K, Zandbank K, Kushmaro A, Rosenfeld H et al (2015) Breakdown of coral colonial form under reduced pH conditions is initiated in polyps and mediated through apoptosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 112:2082–2086. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1419621112
LaJeunesse TC (2002) Diversity and community structure of symbiotic dinoflagellates from Caribbean coral reefs. Mar Biol 141:387–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-002-0829-2
LaJeunesse TC (2005) “Species” radiations of symbiotic dinoflagellates in the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific since the Miocene–Pliocene transition. Mol Biol Evol 22:570–581. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msi042
LaJeunesse TC, Pettay DT, Sampayo EM, Phongsuwan N, Brown B, Obura DO et al (2010) Long-standing environmental conditions, geographic isolation and host–symbiont specificity influence the relative ecological dominance and genetic diversification of coral endosymbionts in the genus Symbiodinium. J Biogeogr 37:785–800. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2010.02273.x
Lathuilière B, Marchal D (2009) Extinction, survival and recovery of corals from the Triassic to Middle Jurassic time. Terra Nova 21:57–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3121.2008.00856.x
Lehrmann DJ (1999) Early Triassic calcimicrobial mounds and biostromes of the Nanpanjiang Basin, south China. Geology 27:359–362. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027<0359:ETCMAB>2.3.CO;2
Leinfelder RR (2001) Jurassic reef ecosystems. In: Stanley GD Jr (ed) The history and sedimentology of ancient reef systems. Kluwer/Plenum, New York, pp 251–309
Lindström S, Erlström M (2006) The late Rhaetian transgression in southern Sweden: regional (and global) recognition and relation to the Triassic–Jurassic boundary. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 241:339–372
Lipps JH, Stanley GD Jr (2016a) Photosymbiosis in past and present reefs. In: Hubbard DK, Rogers CS, Lipps JH, Stanley GD Jr (eds) Coral reefs at the crossroads, Coral reefs of the world, vol 6. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 47–68
Lipps JH, Stanley GD Jr (2016b) Reefs through time: An evolutionary view. In: Hubbard DK, Rogers CS, Lipps JH, Stanley GD Jr (eds) Coral reefs at the crossroads, Coral reefs of the world, vol 6. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 175–196
Little AF, van Oppen MJH, Willis BL (2004) Flexibility in algal endosymbioses shapes growth in reef corals. Science 304:1492–1494. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1095733
MacRae RA, Fensome RA, Williams GL (1996) Fossil dinoflagellate diversity, originations, and extinctions and their significance. Can J Bot 74:1687–1694. https://doi.org/10.1139/b96-205
Marshall AT (1996) Calcification in hermatypic and ahermatypic corals. Science 271:637–639. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.271.5249.637
Medina M, Collins AG, Takaoka TL, Kuehl JV, Boore JL (2006) Naked corals: skeleton loss in Scleractinia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103:9096–9100. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0602444103
Mieog JC, van Oppen MJH, Cantin NE, Stam WT, Olsen JL (2007) Real-time PCR reveals a high incidence of Symbiodinium clade D at low levels in four scleractinian corals across the Great Barrier Reef: implications for symbiont shuffling. Coral Reefs 36:449–457. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-007-0244-8
Montresor M, Procaccini G, Stoeker DK (1999) Polarella glacialis, gen. nov., sp. nov. (Dinophyceae): Suessiaceae are still alive! J Phycol 35:186–197. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1529-8817.1999.3510186.x
Morbey SJ, Dunay RE (1978) Early Jurassic to late Triassic dinoflagellate cysts and miospores. In: Thusu B (ed) Distribution of biostratigraphically diagnostic dinoflagellate cysts and miospores from the Northwest European continental shelf and adjacent areas, vol 100. Continental Shelf Institute, London, pp 47–59
Muscatine L, Goiran C, Land L, Jaubert J, Cuif JP, Allemand D (2005) Stable isotopes (δ13C and δ15N ) of organic matrix from coral skeleton. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102:1525–1530. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0408921102
Myers N, Knoll AH (2001) The biotic crisis and the future of evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98:5389–5392. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.091092498
Payne JL, Bush AM, Heim NA, Knope ML, McCauley DJ (2016) Ecological selectivity of the emerging mass extinction in the oceans. Science 353:1284–1286. https://doi.org/10.1026/science.aaf2416
Perrin C (2002) Tertiary: the emergence of modern reef ecosystems. In: Flügel E, Kiessling W, Golonka J (eds) Phanerozoic reef patterns. Soc Econ Paleontol Mineral, Tulsa, pp 587–621
Pochon X, Montoya-Burgos J, Stadelmann B, Pawlowski J (2006) Molecular phylogeny, evolutionary rates, and divergence timing of the symbiotic dinoflagellate genus Symbiodinium. Mol Phylogenet Evol 38:20–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2005.04.028
Riedel P (1991) Korallen in der Trias der Tethys: Stratigraphische Reichweiten, Diversitätsmuster, Entwicklungstrends und Bedeutung als Rifforganismen. Mitt Geol Bergbaustud Oesterr 37:97–118
Roniewicz E (2011) Early Norian (Triassic) corals from the Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria, and the intra−Norian faunal turnover. Acta Palaeontol Pol 56:401–428. https://doi.org/10.4202/app.2009.0092
Rosen BR (2000) Algal symbiosis and the collapse and recovery of reef communities: Lazarus corals across the K-T boundary. In: Culver SJ, Rawson PF (eds) Biotic response to global change, vol 12. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 164–180
Rosen BR, Turnšek D (1989) Extinction patterns and biogeography of scleractinian corals across the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary. Mem Assoc Australas Palaeontol 8:355–370
Rosen BR, Aillud GS, Bosellini FR, Clack NJ, Insalaco E, Valldeperas FX, Wilson MEJ et al. (2000) Platy coral assemblages: 200 million years of functional stability in response to the limiting effects of light and turbidity. Proceedings of the 9th International Coral Reef Symposium, vol 1, pp 255–264
Rowan R (1998) Diversity and ecology of zooxanthellae on coral reefs. J Phycol 34:407–417. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1529-8817.1998.340407.x
Rowan R, Powers DA (1991) A molecular genetic classification of zooxanthellae and the evolution of animal-algal symbioses. Science 251:1348–1351. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.251.4999.1348
Scheibner C, Speijer RP (2008) Decline of coral reefs during late Paleocene to early Eocene global warming. eEarth 3:19–27. www.electronic-earth.net/3/19/2008/
Shaked Y, de Vargas C (2006) Pelagic photosymbiosis: rDNA assessment of diversity and evolution of dinoflagellate symbionts and planktonic foraminiferal hosts. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 325:59–71. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps325059
Smith DC, Douglas AE (1987) The biology of symbiosis. Edward Arnold, London
Stanley GD Jr (1981) The early history of scleractinian corals and its geologic consequences. Geology 9:507–511. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<507:EHOSCA>2.0.CO;2
Stanley GD Jr (1988) The history of early Mesozoic reef communities: a three-step process. Palaios 3:170–183. https://doi.org/10.2307/3514528
Stanley GD Jr (1992) Tropical reef ecosystems. In: Nierenberg WA (ed) Encyclopedia of Earth system science, vol 4. Academic, New York, pp 375–388
Stanley GD Jr (2001) Introduction to reef ecosystems and their evolution. In: Stanley GD Jr (ed) The history and sedimentology of ancient reef systems. Kluwer/Plenum, New York, pp 1–39
Stanley GD Jr (2003) The evolution of modern corals and their early history. Earth Sci Rev 60:195–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00104-6
Stanley GD Jr (2006) Photosymbiosis and the evolution of modern coral reefs. Science 312:857–858. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1123701
Stanley GD Jr (2007) Ocean acidification and scleractinian corals. Science 317:1032–1033. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.317.5841.1032c
Stanley GD Jr (2011) The naked “Lazarus effect” and the recovery of corals after the end-Permian mass extinction. Kölner Forum für Geologie und Paläontologie 19:64–165
Stanley GD Jr, Beauvais L (1994) Corals from an early Jurassic reef in British Columbia: refuge on an oceanic island reef. Lethaia 27:35–47. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1994.tb01553.x
Stanley GD Jr, Fautin DG (2001) The origins of modern corals. Science 291:1913–1914. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1056632
Stanley GD Jr, Helmle KB (2010) Middle Triassic coral growth bands and their implication for photosymbiosis. Palaios 25:754–763. https://doi.org/10.2110/palo.2010.p10-039r
Stanley GD Jr, Lipps JH (2011) Photosymbiosis: the driving force for reef success and failure. Paleontol Soc Paper 17:33–59. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1089332600002436
Stanley GD Jr, Swart PK (1995) Evolution of the coral–zooxanthellae symbiosis during the Triassic: a geochemical approach. Paleobiology 21:179–199. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0094837300013191
Stanley GD Jr (1994) Upper Triassic spongiomorph and coral association dredged off the north western Australian shelf. AGSO J Aust Geol Geophys 15:127–133
Stanton RJ Jr (2006) Nutrient models for the development and location of ancient reefs. Geo Alps 3:191–206
Stat M, Carter D, Hoegh-Guldberg O (2006) The evolutionary history of Symbiodinium and scleractinian hosts – symbiosis, diversity and the effect of climate change. Perspect Plant Ecol Evol Syst 8:23–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ppees.2006.04.001
Stolarski J (2003) Three-dimensional micro- and nanostructural characteristics of the scleractinian coral skeleton: a biocalcification proxy. Acta Palaeontol Pol 48:497–530
Stolarski J, Kitahara VM, Miller D, Cairns SD, Mazur M, Meibom A (2011) The ancient evolutionary origins of Scleractinia revealed by azooxanthellate corals. BMC Evol Biol 11:316. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-11-316
Swart PK (1983) Carbon and oxygen isotope fractionation in scleractinian corals: a review. Earth Sci Rev 19:51–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252(83)90076-4
Talent JA (1988) Organic reef-building: episodes of extinction and symbiosis? Senckenbergiana Lethaea 69:315–368
Tanner LH, Lucas SG, Chapman MG (2004) Assessing the record and causes of late Triassic extinctions. Earth Sci Rev 65:103–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-8252(03)00082-5
Tornabene C, Martindale RC, Wang XT, Schaller MF (2017) Detecting photosymbiosis in fossil scleractinian corals. Sci Rep 7. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-09008-4
van de Schootbrugge B, Tremolada F, Rosenthal Y, Bailey TR, Feist-Burkhardt S, Brinkhuis H et al (2007) End-Triassic calcification crisis and blooms of organic-walled disaster species. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 244:126–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.06.026
van Oppen MJ, Baker AC, Coffroth MA, Willis BL (2009) Bleaching resistance and the role of algal endosymbionts. Ecol Stud 205:83–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-6975-6_6
Veron JEN (2008) Mass extinctions and ocean acidification: biological constraints on geological dilemmas. Coral Reefs 27:459–472. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-008-0381-8
Wells JW (1956) Scleractinia. In: Moore RC (ed) Treatise on invertebrate paleontology. University Kansas Press, Lawrence, pp 328–444. pt. F
Wood R (1999) Reef evolution. Oxford University Press, New York
Woodridge SA (2017) Instability and breakdown of the coral–algae symbiosis upon exceedence of the interglacial pCO2 threshold (>260 ppmv): the “missing” Earth-System feedback mechanism. Coral Reefs 36:1025–1037. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-017-1594-5
Wright JD, Schaller MF (2013) Evidence for a rapid release of carbon at the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110:15908–15913. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.130918810
Zapalski JK (2014) Evidence of photosymbiosis in Palaeozoic tabulate corals. Proc R Soc B 281:20132663. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.2663
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Stanley, G., van de Schootbrugge, B. (2018). The Evolution of the Coral–Algal Symbiosis and Coral Bleaching in the Geologic Past. In: van Oppen, M., Lough, J. (eds) Coral Bleaching. Ecological Studies, vol 233. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75393-5_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75393-5_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-75392-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-75393-5
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)