Abstract
Latinos are the fastest-growing segment of older adults in the United States and are at high risk for cognitive impairment (CI). Although research on factors that affect the prevention, diagnosis, and care of Latinos with CI has been increasing, less explored are reconstitutive aspects of Latinidad (i.e., the intersection of heritage, birthplace, and age at migration) that function as life course mechanisms influencing cognitive health across the life course. Therefore, this study investigates how intersectional Latinidades influence self-reported cognitive impairment (SRCI), a precursor to CI. Data from the 2015–2019 American Community Survey were used to examine SRCI among Latinos aged 45+ from the 10 largest U.S. Latino heritage population groups originating from the following places: Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, and Puerto Rico. A set of nested binary logistic regression models, stratified by gender, were estimated to model SRCI as a function of Latino heritage, birthplace, age at migration, and educational attainment. Our findings indicate that when solely considering Latino heritage, Puerto Ricans had the highest probabilities of SRCI at all ages, followed by Dominicans, Cubans, and Mexicans. When birthplace or nativity status is combined with Latino heritage, some Latino heritage groups displayed an immigrant advantage, which further widened with age. Additional consideration of age at migration revealed that the immigrant advantage does not extend to Latino immigrants who arrived in the United States at ages 50 or older, particularly for Cuban, Dominican, and Puerto Rican women. Last, we find that higher educational attainment is associated with lower probabilities of SRCI for many Latino groups. As the Latino population ages, comprehensive, multidisciplinary, and multilevel efforts are needed across disciplines along with authentic community-based and participant engagement to develop actionable and culturally appropriate health policies aimed at ameliorating the burden of CI.
Author Contributions: C. García: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal Analysis, Writing – Original Draft, Visualization, Funding Acquisition. M. A. Garcia: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Writing – Original Draft. M. Getz Sheftel: Data Curation, Writing – Review & Editing. De’Lisia Adorno: Visualization.
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Notes
- 1.
The terms Hispanic and Latino are often used interchangeably but have distinct meanings. Hispanic refers to those with heritage from Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America and Spain, while Latino includes those with ancestry from non-Spanish-speaking Latin American countries but excludes people of Spanish origin outside of the Western Hemisphere. Additionally, Latino is a term used in resistance to the colonial relations implicit in the term Hispanic. Throughout this chapter, Latino is inclusive of individuals born or descendant from Latin America (except for Brazil) and the Hispanophone Caribbean (i.e., Cuba, Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico).
- 2.
From 2020 to 2040, U.S.-dwelling Latinos aged 65 years and older are projected to increase 139%, followed by Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders (123%), Asians (84%), American Indian and Alaskan Natives (69%), and Black or African Americans (43%; U.S. Census Bureau, 2018). Non-Latino Whites, however, are projected to experience a 27% decline in the population aged 65 years and older (U.S. Census Bureau, 2018).
- 3.
Racialization here refers to how persons and/or groups are absorbed into racial systems (Treitler, 2015).
- 4.
Spanish is the predominant language throughout Latin America (except for Belize and Brazil) and is the language that most Latino immigrants fluently speak upon arrival to the United States.
- 5.
Although it is beyond the scope of this chapter, readers should be aware of the anti-Black underpinnings in the manufacturing of Latinidad. See Dash Harris Machado and Dr. Javier Wallace’s work on Black Latin American history and contemporary topics, and dismantling anti-Blackness in Latiné communities at www.dashharris.com
- 6.
Racialization processes here refers to the social process by which meanings and attributions are attached to inherited characteristics, typically for purposes of exploitation and exclusion.
- 7.
Mexicans were initially incorporated into the United States with the Treaty of Guadalupe in 1848 in which the Northern territory of Mexico (e.g., Arizona, California, New Mexico, Texas) was annexed by the United States. The Mexicans who decided to stay in the annexed territory became U.S. citizens.
- 8.
The Bracero Program was a guest worker program that brought approximately 4.8 million Mexicans to work as contract laborers primarily during World War II to address agricultural labor shortages.
- 9.
Ethnoracism refers to processes of racialization and structural violence specific to an ethnic group (Aranda & Rebollo-Gil, 2004).
- 10.
During dictator Rafael Leonidas Trujillo’s rule in the Dominican Republic (1930–1961), he restricted and discouraged international migration. The only Dominicans that were able to emigrate were those from elite and privileged backgrounds (Aponte, 1999).
- 11.
- 12.
Although Puerto Rico is a U.S. territory, Puerto Rico is considered part of the Hispanic-Caribbean and Latin America.
- 13.
For example, if an individual reported that they were Latino of Guatemalan origin but reported their birthplace in Mexico they were excluded from the sample.
- 14.
Cognitive decline is already evident in middle age (i.e., ages 45–49), which makes it imperative to identify the determinants of SRCI (Singh-Manoux et al., 2012).
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This research was supported by the National Institute on Aging of the National Institutes of Health (R24AG077433, L30AG074407).
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García, C., Garcia, M.A., Sheftel, M.G., Adorno, D.S. (2023). Heritage, Birthplace, Age at Migration, and Education as Life Course Mechanisms Influencing Cognitive Aging Among Latinos. In: Angel, J.L., Drumond Andrade, F.C., Riosmena, F., Mejia-Arango, S. (eds) Older Mexicans and Latinos in the United States. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48809-2_7
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