Abstract
This chapter explores the precursors of the Italian and Swedish branches of the first wave, assessing the convergence of old-world influences with US and Brazilian sources. I consider the interweaving and variations of holiness, Reformed-evangelical, and folk-religious streams in the genesis of each movement. This chapter explores the significance of William Seymour, the Zion City and Moody revivals, the historical background of Luigi Francescon, Daniel Berg and Gunnar Vingren as well as Brazilian-Catholic, Protestant, and African Indigenous Precursors.
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Notes
- 1.
On the Euro-US roots of classical Italian Pentecostalism, see P. Palma, Italian American Pentecostalism, chap. 1. See also Francesco Toppi, E mi sarete testimoni: Il movimento Pentecostale e le Assemblee di Dio in Italia (Rome: ADI Media, 1999), 10–29; A. H. Anderson, Introduction to Pentecostalism, 19–33; and Stanley M. Burgess, Christian Peoples of the Spirit: A Documentary History of Pentecostal Spirituality from the Early Church to the Present (New York University Press, 2011).
- 2.
Vondey, Pentecostalism, 11; Deiros and Wilson, “Hispanic Pentecostalism in the Americas,” 293. On the Indigenous dimensions of Latin American grassroots Christianity, see Clayton L. Berg and Paul E. Pretiz, Spontaneous Combustion: Grass-Roots Christianity, Latin American Style (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1996), 7–8.
- 3.
Anderson, Spirit-Filled World, 16.
- 4.
William H. Durham, “The Great Chicago Revival,” Pentecostal Testimony, May 1912, 13.
- 5.
“Pentecost Has Come,” Apostolic Faith, September 1906, 1.
- 6.
Mark A. Noll, A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992), 386–87; Estrelda Alexander, The Women of Azusa Street (Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim, 2005), 24–25; Denzil R. Miller, The Women of Azusa Street: Four Spirit-Anointed Leaders of the Azusa Street Revival (Springfield, MO: AIA Publications, 2015), 9; Eric Patterson, “Conclusion: Back to the Future: U.S. Pentecostalism in the 21st Century,” in The Future of Pentecostalism in the United States, ed. Eric Patterson and Edmund Rybarczyk (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007), 204–5.
- 7.
Hefner, “The Unexpected Modern,” 3.
- 8.
Vinson Synan, and Charles R. Fox, Jr., William J. Seymour: Pioneer of the Azusa Street Revival (Alachua, FL: Bridge-Logos, 2012), 17–19. Despite the passing of the Civil Rights Act in 1866, the black codes “effectively continued slavery by way of indentures, sharecrop**, and other forms of service.” Jill Lepore, These Truths: A History of the United States (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 2018), 318; Estrelda Alexander, “Recovering Black Theological Thought in the Writings of Early African-American Holiness-Pentecostal Leaders: Liberation Motifs in Early African-American Pentecostalism,” in A Liberating Spirit: Pentecostals and Social Action in North America, ed. Michael Wilkinson and Steven M. Studebaker (Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2010), 30–31.
- 9.
Seymour encountered the bible (“initial”) evidence teaching from Charles Parham during a visit to Houston. Synan and Fox, William J. Seymour, 28–35; Kay, Pentecostalism, 66; Robeck, Jr., Azusa Street Mission and Revival, 43–45.
- 10.
Bartleman, Azusa Street, 54.
- 11.
McClymond, “I Will Pour Out of My Spirit,” 374; A. H. Anderson, Introduction to Pentecostalism, 171.
- 12.
Robeck, Jr., Azusa Street Mission and Revival, 16.
- 13.
Bruce L. Shelley, “Dwight Lyman Moody,” in New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, ed. J. D. Douglas (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1974), 674–75; Toppi, E mi sarete testimoni, 19, 23; William R. Moody, The Life of Dwight L. Moody (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1900), 149; R. A. Torrey, What the Bible Teaches (New Kensington, PA: Whitaker House, 1996), 271; R. A. Torrey, The Baptism with the Holy Spirit (Minneapolis, MN: Bethany Fellowship, 1972).
- 14.
Shelley, “Dwight Lyman Moody,” 674–75; W. R. Moody, Life of Dwight L. Moody, 127–30; Marion Brepohl, “Missionaries in Rowboats? Mission and Enculturation,” in Miller and Morgan, Brazilian Evangelicalism in the Twenty-first Century, 304–5; Joseph Colletti, “Ethnic Pentecostalism in Chicago: 1890–1950” (PhD diss., University of Birmingham, 1990), 101–2. Frank J. Ewart, The Phenomenon of Pentecost, rev. ed. (Hazelwood, MO: Word Aflame, 2000), 87; George D. Johnson, What Will a Man Give in Exchange for His Soul? (Harrisburg, PA: Xlibris, 2011), 115–16. On Chicago as a turn-of-the-twentieth-century hub for evangelical revivalist preachers like Moody, William Durham, and Billy Sunday, see Mark P. Hutchinson, “Dissenting Preaching in the Twentieth-Century Anglophone World,” in Hutchinson, Oxford History of Protestant Dissenting Traditions, 170–71.
- 15.
Francesco Toppi, Massimiliano Tosetto, I pioneri del risveglio Pentecostale Italiano serie (PRPI) (Rome: ADI-Media, 1998), 20–21. The Italian hymnal was adopted by the International Fellowship of Christian Assemblies (also known as the Christian Church of North American, CCNA) in 1928. Alfred Palma, “CCNA Hymnal,” in FACCNA, ed. Stephen Galvano (Sharon, PA: General Council of the CCNA, 1977), 74–75.
- 16.
A. H. Anderson, Introduction to Pentecostalism, 31–32; William W. Menzies, “The Reformed Roots of Pentecostalism,” Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 9, no. 2 (2006): 269; Douglas Petersen, Not by Might, nor by Power: A Pentecostal Theology of Social Concern in Latin America (Oxford: Regnum Books International, 1996), 24; Colletti, “Ethnic Pentecostalism in Chicago,” 107; Edith L. Blumhofer, “A Pentecostal Branch Grows in Dowie’s Zion,” Assemblies of God Heritage 6, Fall 1986, 3; John Alexander Dowie, Leaves of Healing 2, July 17, 1896, 620; D. William Faupel, “Theological Influences on the Teachings and Practices of John Alexander Dowie,” Pneuma 29, no. 2 (2007): 241–43. Influenced by Irving’s Catholic Apostolic Church, Dowie named his denomination the Christian Catholic Apostolic Church in Zion. Hutchinson, Rocha, and Openshaw, “Introduction: Australian Charismatic Movements,” 13 (n. 4).
- 17.
William D. Faupel, The Everlasting Gospel: The Significance of Eschatology in the Development of Pentecostal Thought (Sheffield, Eng.: Sheffield Academic, 1996), 130–31.
- 18.
Walter J. Hollenweger, The Pentecostals (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1972), 118; Colletti, “Ethnic Pentecostalism in Chicago,” 112, 116; Blumhofer, “Pentecostal Branch,” 3–5; Edith L. Blumhofer, The Assemblies of God: A Chapter in the Story of American Pentecostalism, Vol 1.—To 1941 (Springfield, MO: Gospel, 1989), 113–16, 126–28; Carl Brumback, Suddenly…. From Heaven: A History of the Assemblies of God (Springfield, MO: Gospel, 1961), 74–75; Richard M. Riss, “Bosworth, Fred Francis,” in Burgess, NIDPCM, 439. Dowie’s impact on three Australian states provided a precursor of Australian Pentecostalism. Peter Elliott, “Australian Proto-Pentecostals: The Contribution of the Catholic Apostolic Church,” in Rocha, Hutchinson, and Openshaw, Australian Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, 63; K. R. Glover, “After Many Days,” Latter Rain Evangel, February 1924, 17, 14–15, 20.
- 19.
Paulo Ayres Mattos, “Some Remarks on Brazilian Scholarship,” in Global Renewal Christianity: Spirit-Empowered Movements Past, Present, and Future, Volume 2: Latin America, ed. Amos Yong, Vinson Synan, and Miguel Álvarez (Lake Mary, FL: Charisma House, 2016), 240–41; Deiros and Wilson, “Hispanic Pentecostalism in the Americas,” 311–12; Yuasa, “Louis Francescon,” 189–91; Chesnut, Born Again in Brazil, 26–30; Synan, Holiness-Pentecostal Tradition, 133–34. For an Italian perspective, see Toppi, E mi sarete testimoni, 52.
- 20.
Francescon, Faithful Testimony, 2; Yuasa, “Louis Francescon,” 31–33, 37; Francesco Toppi, Luigi Francescon, PRPI (Rome: ADI-Media, 1997), 9–10; Guy BonGiovanni, Pioneers of the Faith (Farrell, PA: Sound Ministries, 1971), 13.
- 21.
Francesco Toppi, Michele Nardi: Il Moody d’Italia (Rome: ADI-Media, 2002); Blanche P. Nardi and A. B. Simpson, Michele Nardi: The Italian Evangelist; His Life and Work (New York: Blanche P. Nardi, 1916), 24–48.
- 22.
Francescon, Faithful Testimony, 2–3; B. P. Nardi and Simpson, Michele Nardi, 28–30; Michele Palma, “La Sorella Rosina Francescon trovasi col Signor Gesu,” Il faro, September 1953, 1; BonGiovanni, Pioneers of the Faith, 13; Francesco Toppi, Madri in Israele: Donne del movimento Pentecostale Italiano (Rome, It.: ADI Media, 2003), 7–11.
- 23.
Pietro Ottolini, The Life and Mission of Peter Ottolini (St. Louis, MO: privately printed, 1962), 5–6; Colletti, “Ethnic Pentecostalism in Chicago,” 135–36.
- 24.
A. H. Anderson, Introduction to Pentecostalism, 45; Stanley H. Frodsham, With Signs Following: The Story of the Pentecostal Revival in the Twentieth Century, rev. ed. (Springfield, MO: Gospel, 1946), 43–45.
- 25.
According to Luigi, Rosina’s experience was attended with the “gift of speaking in the Swedish tongue.” Another spoke in Chinese. Francescon, Faithful Testimony, 5. See also Frank A. Maruso, “History of the Christian Church of North America,” 1968, p. 3, ADP, 6.3; David J. du Plessis, “1,400 ‘Christian Congregations’ (Pentecostal) in Brazil,” Pentecost, 1961, 5.
- 26.
Belmont Assembly, “100 Year Anniversary Celebration, 1907 to 2007: Great Is Thy Faithfulness” (Chicago, IL: Belmont Assembly of God, 2007), under “100 Years: A Rich History of God’s Grace.”
- 27.
M. Palma, “La Sorella Rosina Francescon,” 1; Ottolini, Life and Mission, 9; Francescon, Faithful Testimony, 7; Toppi, Madri in Israele, 14–15.
- 28.
Francescon, Faithful Testimony, 10–11; J. Norberto Saracco, “Argentine Pentecostalism: Its History and Theology” (PhD diss., University of Birmingham, 1989), 45–46.
- 29.
Francescon also had interactions with people in Cairo, Africa. Toppi, Luigi Francescon, 47–49.
- 30.
Read, New Patterns of Church Growth, 25.
- 31.
“A View of a Precious Life,” A Biblia no Brasil [The Bible in Brazil], January–March 1965, ADP 3.42.
- 32.
Yuasa, “Louis Francescon,” 194, 206–7; Read, “New Patterns of Church Growth,” 25–26.
- 33.
For further explanation of these controversies, see P. Palma, Italian American Pentecostalism, 46, 76–81; Colletti, “Ethnic Pentecostalism in Chicago,” 154–58; and Giuseppe Petrelli, Fra i due Testamenti (Bristol, PA: Merlo’s, 1930), 9.
- 34.
Alan Davidson, The Oxford Companion to Food, ed. Tom Jaine, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 87–88. Foods like blood sausages (also “blood pudding”) are exceptionally rich in iron and an adequate source of protein, niacin, and copper. David A. Bender, A Dictionary of Food and Nutrition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 66.
- 35.
Giuseppe Beretta, Letter to Pietro Menconi, 1921, trans. and quoted in Key Yuasa, “Louis Francescon: A Theological Biography: 1866–1964” (ThD diss., University of Genève, 2001), 156.
- 36.
Yuasa, “Louis Francescon,” 159–63; Luigi Francescon, “Fede e regole della Congregazione Cristiana di Chicago, Illinois” (Chicago, IL: privately printed, 1935).
- 37.
Francescon, “Fede e regole,” 12.
- 38.
Yuasa, “Louis Francescon,” 160.
- 39.
The Italian’s letteralismo challenged theological “liberalismo” (liberalism). Toppi, E mi sarete testimoni, 48.
- 40.
Hutchinson, “Rough Blocks,” 245; Enrico C. Cumbo, “‘Your Old Men Will Dream Dreams’: The Italian Pentecostal Experience in Canada, 1912–1945,” Journal of American Ethnic History 19 (Spring 2000): 43.
- 41.
John Thomas Nichol, Pentecostalism (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), 133. The IFCA was known originally as the Christian Church of North America. Louis De Caro, Our Heritage: The Christian Church of North America (General Council, Christian Church of North America, 1977), 64–66; Nuovo libro di inni e salmi spirituali (Niagara Falls, NY: Chiesa Cristiana, 1928), under “Prefazione.”
- 42.
David Berg, Enviado por Deus (Rio de Janeiro: CPAD, 1995), 11. His brother, David, describes Daniel’s conversion in terms of the personal experience of “se entregou para Jesus” (he gave himself to Jesus) (17).
- 43.
Ibid., 43–49; Hollenweger, Pentecostals, 75. Pethrus was serving as a Baptist pastor in Lidko** and became enamored with the pentecostal movement through his contact with T. B. Barratt. David D. Bundy, “Pethrus, Petrus Lewi,” in Burgess, NIDPCM, 986; Joel Halldorf, Pentecostal Politics in a Secular World: The Life and Leadership of Lewi Pethrus, Christianity & Renewal—Interdisciplinary Studies (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), 30–33; Ramírez, “Pentecostalism in Latin America,” 121.
- 44.
“Daniel debatia-se em oração. Uma verdadeira luta que resultou, por fim, em vitória do espírito sobre a carne. Todas as cadeias foram quebradas! Havia alcançado libertação. Passada aquela batalha espiritual, que parecia também querer antingir seu corpo físico, suas limitações e dúvidas caíram por terra. Uma nova vida estava à sua espera. Agora, tinha ele completa ciência de onde pudesse encontrar a verdade e a ela caberia a missão de conduzi-lo pelos becos e ruas onde Deus queria que ele estivesse, para anunciá-la a todos quantos estivessem dispostos a ouvi-la.” Berg, Enviado por Deus, 49. Unless otherwise noted, all translations of Portuguese are my own.
- 45.
Berg, Enviado por Deus, 55.
- 46.
Ivar Vingren, O diário do pioneiro Gunnar Vingren (Rio de Janeiro: CPAD, 2000), 19–20, 23–24.
- 47.
Halldorf, Pentecostal Politics in a Secular World, 128.
- 48.
“No verão de 1909, deus me encheu de uma grande sede de receber o batismo com o Espírito Santo e com fogo. Em novembro do mesmo ano, pedi licença à minha igreja para visitar uma conferência batista que deveria ser realizada na Primeira Igreja Batista Sueca em Chicago. Fiu à Conferência com o firme propósito de buscar o batismo com o Espírito Santo. E, louvado seja Deus, depois de cinco dias de busca, O Senhor Jesus me batizou com o Espírito Santo e com fogo! Quando recebi o batismo, falei novas línguas, justamente como está escrito que aconteceu com os discípulos no dia de Pentecoste, em Atos 2. É impossível descrever a alegria que encheu o meu coração. Eternamente o louvarei, pois Ele me batizou com o seu Espírito Santo e com fogo.” Vingren, O diário do pioneiro Gunnar Vingren, 25.
- 49.
Ibid., 25–26.
- 50.
Ibid., 27–29; Conde, História das Assembleias de Deus, 13–14.
- 51.
Rowan Ireland, “Pentecostalism, Conversions, and Politics in Brazil,” in Power, Politics, and Pentecostals in Latin America, ed. Edward L. Cleary and Hannah W. Stewart-Gambino (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1997), 123; “Brazil’s Changing Religious Landscape,” Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project, July 18, 2013, https://www.pewforum.org/2013/07/18/brazils-changing-religious-landscape/.
- 52.
Wilson, “Brazil,” 36; William R. Read, Victor M. Monterroso, and Harmon A. Johnson, Latin American Church Growth (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), 36. In theory, the Portuguese were permitted only to enslave those already enslaved by other Natives or captured in “just war.” Justo L. González, The Story of Christianity (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2006), 1:409–10; Hugh Clarence Tucker, The Bible in Brazil: Colporter Experiences (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1902), 18; Eakin, Brazil: The Once and Future Country, 122–23; David J. Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2011), 232–33.
- 53.
Wilson, “Brazil,” 36. See also Stuart B. Schwartz, Early Brazil: A Documentary Collection to 1700 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 117, 147; and André Droogers, Play and Power in Religion: Collected Essays (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2012), 176.
- 54.
William K. Kay, Pentecostalism (London: SCM, 2009), 113.
- 55.
Donna R. Gabaccia, “Race, Nation, Hyphen: Italian-Americans and American Multiculturalism in Comparative Perspective,” in Are Italians White?: How Race Is Made in America, ed. Jennifer Guglielmo and Salvatore Salerno (London: Routledge, 2003), 45.
- 56.
Italians joined about 400,000 Germans in the region, whom they outnumbered three to one. Chadwick, “A Study of Iberic-America,” 9. See also Ramírez, “Pentecostalism in Latin America,” 121–22; and Mary Elizabeth Brown, “Religion,” in the Italian American Experience: An Encyclopedia, ed. Salvatore J. LaGumina, Frank J. Cavaioli, Salvatore Primeggia, and Joseph A. Varacall (New York: Garland, 2000), Master e-book, 538.
- 57.
Francescon, Faithful Testimony, 11–13.
- 58.
Eakin, Brazil: The Once and Future Country, 123; Kay, Pentecostalism, 112–13; Carlos Rangel, The Latin Americans: Their Love-Hate Relationship with the United States, rev. ed. (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1987). Rangel emphasizes the contrast between Spanish and Portuguese America. Brazil’s manner of conquest and relatively “non-traumatic” break with the Portuguese empire (leaving political and administrative structures intact) distinguished them (4–5).
- 59.
Wilson, “Brazil,” 37; Tucker, Bible in Brazil, 15; Eakin, Brazil: The Once and Future Country, 80, 123–30; Droogers, Play and Power in Religion, 175, 177; Anna L. Peterson and Manuel A. Vásquez, Latin American Religions: Histories and Documents in Context (New York University Press, 2008), 159–60; Dag Retsö, “Emigration from the Nordic Countries to Brazil 1880–1914,” Iberoamericana–Nordic Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies 45, no. 1 (2016): 6–18, doi:10.16993/iberoamericana.2; James L. Bischoff, “Forced Labour in Brazil: International Criminal Law as the Ultima Ratio Modality of Human Rights Protection,” Leiden Journal of International Law 19, no. 1 (March 2006): 151–93; Fonseca, “Religion and Democracy in Brazil,” 163; Emilio Willems, Followers of the New Faith: Culture Change and the Rise of Protestantism in Brazil (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 1967), 57–58.
- 60.
Read et al., Latin American Church Growth, 38–39; Peterson and Vásquez, Latin American Religions, 160; Zwinglio M. Dias and Joyce Hill, Brazil: A Gracious People in a Heartless System (New York: Friendship Press, 1997), 49–50; Tucker, Bible in Brazil, 160–61. Tucker describes persecution faced by members of the American Bible society in the interior of Brazil even into the nineteenth century. Among them was the Italian, José Tonelli, who was stoned and left by the wayside for dead (161).
- 61.
Luis Orellana, “The Future of Pentecostalism in Latin America,” in Spirit-Empowered Christianity in the Twenty-First Century, ed. Vinson Synan (Lake Mary, FL: Charisma House, 2011), 109.
- 62.
Willems, Followers of the New Faith, 63.
- 63.
Francescon, Faithful Testimony, 13; Chesnut, Born Again in Brazil, 29–30; Read, New Patterns of Church Growth, 23; Ramírez, “Pentecostalism in Latin America,” 122; Hollenweger, Pentecostals, 91.
- 64.
Francescon, Faithful Testimony, 13. Kidder was a Bible colporteur in São Paulo. Read, New Patterns of Church Growth, 181.
- 65.
Read, Monterroso, and Johnson, Latin American Church Growth, 73; Read, New Patterns of Church Growth, 187; Willems, Followers of the New Faith, 104–5.
- 66.
Wilson, “Brazil,” 37; David J. Hess, Spirits and Scientists: Ideology, Spiritism, and Brazilian Culture (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991), 2–3; Roger Bastide, The African Religions of Brazil: Toward a Sociology of the Interpenetration of Civilizations, trans. Helen Sabba (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).
- 67.
Eakin, Brazil: The Once and Future Country, 126. Amerindians with pre-colonial ancestry have largely been wiped out. Droogers, Play and Power in Religion, 175–76.
- 68.
González, Story of Christianity, 1:410.
- 69.
Wilson, “Brazil,” 38. See also Droogers, Play and Power in Religion, 176; A. H. Anderson, Introduction to Pentecostalism, 69–70; Harvey Cox, The Seduction of the Spirit: The Use and Misuse of People’s Religion (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1973), 215–16; and Eakin, Brazil: The Once and Future Country. Eakin points to the imbedded influence in macumba of European spiritism (126).
- 70.
Droogers, Play and Power in Religion, 171.
- 71.
Read, Monterroso, and Johnson, Latin American Church Growth, 250; Luis Nicolau Parés, The Formation of Candomblé: Vodun History and Ritual in Brazil (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 76–77; on the precedent of dual religious affiliation (Catholicism and umbanda) among Brazilians, see Diana DeG. Brown, Umbanda: Religion and Politics in Urban Brazil (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1986), 134–36.
- 72.
David Lehmann, Struggle for the Spirit: Religious Transformation and Popular Culture in Brazil and Latin America (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 1996), 143–44.
- 73.
Literally the “father” or “mother of the saint.” See also Clara Saraiva, “Afro-Brazilian Religions in Portugal: Bruxos, Priests and Pais de Santo,” Etnográfica 14, no. 2 (June 2010): 265–88.
- 74.
Lehmann, Struggle for the Spirit, 144.
- 75.
Lehmann, Struggle for the Spirit, 144–45.
- 76.
The IURD, for example, has raised alarm at the Brazilian spiritist practice of animal sacrifice, trances caused by spirit possession, worship of the dead, and use of magic to cause harm. Vagner Gonçalves da Silva, “Neopentecostalismo e religiões afro-brasileiras: significados do ataque aos símbolos da herança religiosa africana no Brasil contemporâneo,” Mana 13 no. 1 (April 2007): 207–36.
- 77.
Eakin, Brazil: The Once and Future Country, 128.
- 78.
Amos Yong and Estrelda Y. Alexander, Afro-Pentecostalism: Black Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity in History and Culture (New York: New York University Press, 2011), 107–8.
- 79.
Corten, Pentecostalism in Brazil, 34; Eakin, Brazil: The Once and Future Country, 129.
- 80.
Daniel Ramírez, Migrating Faith: Pentecostalism in the United States and Mexico in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 39.
- 81.
Handlin describes the agrarian migrant’s “world of spirits,” simplicity, and struggle of faith, caught between the old and the new worlds. Oscar Handlin, The Uprooted: The Epic Story of the Great Migrations that Made the American People, rev. ed. (Boston, MA: Back Bay Books, 1990), 99.
- 82.
Bastide, African Religions of Brazil, 371.
- 83.
Corten, Pentecostalism in Brazil, 28.
- 84.
Ibid., 83.
- 85.
Mariz, Co** with Poverty, 66.
- 86.
Martin Lindhardt, Practicing the Faith: The Ritual Life of Pentecostal-Charismatic Christians (New York: Berghahn Books, 2011), 8–9.
- 87.
Rubia R. Valente, “From Inception to Present: The Diminishing Role of Women in the Congregaçâo Cristã no Brasil,” Pneuma 37, no. 1 (2015): 56–58.
- 88.
Mariz, Co** with Poverty, 67.
- 89.
Valéria Esteves N. Barros, “O pentecostalismo entre os Guarani de Laran**ha: uma aproximação aos aspectos sociais e cosmológicos da religião tradicional,” Tellus 4, no. 7 (2004): 137–46.
- 90.
Chesnut, Born Again in Brazil, 30; Wilson Harle Endruveit, Pentecostalism in Brazil: A Historical and Theological Study of Its Characteristics (PhD diss., Northwestern University, 1975), 32.
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Palma, P.J. (2022). Grassroots Pentecostal Movements: US and Brazilian Origins. In: Grassroots Pentecostalism in Brazil and the United States. Christianity and Renewal - Interdisciplinary Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13371-8_2
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