Summary of Findings, Policy Implications, and Future Research

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
How to Stop School Rampage Killing
  • 231 Accesses

Abstract

This concluding chapter presents a discussion of the findings as a whole along with the policy and theoretical implications that may be drawn from them. It also discusses emergent areas that may help prevent school rampage killing and suggests avenues for future research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

eBook
USD 24.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 32.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Active Shooter Incidents in the United States in 2016 and 2017. (2018). Federal Bureau of Investigation, United States Department of Justice. Washington, DC. Retrieved July 18, 2019, from https://www.fbi.gov/file-repository/active-shooter-incidents-us-2016-2017.pdf/view.

  • Adams, D. M. (1998). The problem of the incomplete attempt. Social Theory and Practice, 24, 317–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Advancement Project. (2005). Education on lockdown: The schoolhouse to jailhouse track. Retrieved July 26, 2019, from https://b.3cdn.net/advancement/5351180e24cb166d02_mlbrqgxlh.pdf.

  • Alexander, M. (2010). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. New York: New Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, E. (1999). Code of the street: Decency, violence and the moral life of the inner city. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arenson, K. J. (2005). The pitfalls in the law of attempt: A new perspective. The Journal of Criminal Law, 69(2), 146–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Attack on German High School Prevented, Police Say. (2007, November 18). Retrieved July 26, 2019, from http://www.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/europe/11/18/germany.school.plot/index.html.

  • Bayles, M. D. (1982). Punishment for attempts. Social Theory and Practice, 8, 21–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, L. C. (1973/1974). Criminal attempt and the theory of the law of crimes. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 3, 262–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beckett, K., Beach, L., Knaphus, E., & Reosti, A. (2018). US criminal justice policy and practice in the twenty-first century: Toward the end of mass incarceration? Law and Policy, 40(4), 321–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blair, J. P., & Schweit, K. W. (2014). A study of active shooter incidents, 2000–2013. Washington, DC: Texas State University and Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Böckler, N., Heitmeyer, W., Sitzer, P., & Seeger, T. (Eds.). (2013). School shootings: International research, case studies, and concepts for prevention. New York, NY: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borum, R., Cornell, D., Modzeleski, W., & Jimerson, S. (2010). What can be done about school shootings?: A review of the evidence. Educational Researcher, 39(1), 27–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, H. (2009, September 2). Manchester teenagers planned Columbine-style attack, jury told. Retrieved July 17, 2019, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2009/sep/02/manchester-teenagers-columbine-style-attack.

  • Christopher, R. (2004). Does attempted murder deserve greater punishment than murder? Moral luck and the duty to prevent harm. Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics, and Public Policy, 18(2), 419–435.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, R. V. (1995). Situational crime prevention. Crime and Justice, 19, 91–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cornell, D. G. (2013). The Virginia student threat assessment guidelines: An empirically supported violence prevention strategy. In N. Böckler, W. Heitmeyer, P. Sitzer, & T. Seeger (Eds.), School shootings: International research, case studies, and concepts for prevention (pp. 379–400). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Cranley, E. (2019, August 5). How to stop shootings in America: 10 strategies proposed to stop gun violence, and how likely they are to work. Retrieved January 28, 2020, from https://www.businessinsider.com/how-to-stop-gun-school-shooting-america-2018-11.

  • Daniels, J. A. (2019). A preliminary report on the Police Foundations averted school violence database. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, M. (1986). Why attempts deserve less punishment than complete crimes. Law and Philosophy, 5(1), 1–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donahue, J. J., Aneja, A., & Weber, K. D. (2018). Right-to-carry laws and violent crime: A comprehensive assessment using panel data and a state-level synthetic control analysis. Journal of Empirical Legal Studies, 16(2), 198–247.

    Google Scholar 

  • Don’t Name Them. (2019). Retrieved July 17, 2019, from https://www.facebook.com/pg/DontNameThem/about/.

  • Drane, K. (2019, June 1). Every incident of mishandled guns in schools. Retrieved June 26, 2019, from https://giffords.org/2019/06/every-incident-of-mishandled-guns-in-schools/.

  • Duff, A. (1997). Criminal attempts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Duwe, G., Kovandzic, T., & Moody, C. (2002). The impact of right-to-carry concealed firearms laws on mass public shootings. Homicide Studies, 6(4), 271–296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Enker, A. N. (1977). Mens rea and criminal attempt. Law & Social Inquiry, 2(4), 845–879.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feinberg, J. (1995). Equal punishment for failed attempts: Some bad but instructive arguments against it. Arizona Law Review, 37, 117–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foucault, M. (1980). Power/knowledge. Brighton, UK: Harvester.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foucault, M. (1991). Governmentality. In G. Burchell, C. Gordon, & P. Miller (Eds.), The Foucault effect: Studies in governmentality (pp. 87–104). London, UK: Harvester Wheatsheaf.

    Google Scholar 

  • French, D. (2018, March 16). The NRA makes a wise, principled decision to support gun-violence restraining orders. Retrieved June 7, 2019, from https://www.nationalreview.com/2018/03/nra-gun-violence-restraining-order-support-good-move/.

  • Giffords Law Center. (2018). Extreme risk protection orders. Retrieved June 7, 2019, from https://lawcenter.giffords.org/gun-laws/policy-areas/who-can-have-a-gun/extreme-risk-protection-orders/.

  • Gould, M. S., & Olivares, M. (2017). Mass shootings and murder-suicide: Review of empirical evidence for contagion. In S. Stack & T. Niederkrotenthaler (Eds.), Media and suicide: International perspectives on research, theory, and policy (pp. 41–66). New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harsanyi, J. C. (1980). A bargaining model for social status in informal groups and formal organizations. In J. C. Harsanyi (Ed.), Essays on ethics, social behavior, and scientific explanation: Theory and decision library (Vol. 12, pp. 204–226). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Heitzeg, N. A. (2016). The School-to-Prison Pipeline: Education, Discipline, and Racialized Double Standards. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helfgott, J. B. (2015). Criminal behavior and the copycat effect: Literature review and theoretical framework for empirical investigation. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 22, 46–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horsley, S. (2018, March 12). Gun advocates are not happy about Trump advocating for risk protection orders. Retrieved June 7, 2019, from https://www.npr.org/2018/03/12/592965390/gun-advocates-are-not-happy-about-trump-advocating-for-risk-protection-orders.

  • Huff-Corzine, L., McCutcheon, J. C., Corzine, J., Jarvis, J. P., Tetzlaff-Bemiller, M., Weller, M., & Landon, M. (2014). Shooting for accuracy: Comparing data sources on mass murder. Homicide Studies, 18, 105–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, C., Losen, D., & Hewitt, D. (2010). The school-to-prison pipeline: Structuring legal reform. New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimmel, M. S., & Mahler, M. (2003). Adolescent masculinity, homophobia, and violence. American Behavioral Scientist, 46, 1439–1458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, S., Rusoja, A., & Peguero, A. (2018). The school-to-prison pipeline. In J. Deakin, E. Taylor, & A. Kupchik (Eds.), The Palgrave international handbook of school discipline, surveillance, and social control (pp. 269–290). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kissner, J. (2016). Are active shootings temporally contagious? An empirical assessment. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 31, 48–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langman, P. (2018). Different types of role model influence and fame seeking among mass killers and copycat offenders. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(2), 210–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langman, P., & Straub, F. (2019). A comparison of averted and completed school attacks from the Police Foundation’s averted school violence database. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lankford, A. (2016). Fame-seeking rampage shooters: Initial findings and empirical predictions. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 27(1), 122–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lankford, A. (2018). Do the media unintentionally make mass killers into celebrities? An assessment of free advertising and earned media value. Celebrity Studies, 9(3), 340–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lankford, A., & Madfis, E. (2018a). Media coverage of mass killers: Content, consequences, and solutions. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(2), 151–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lankford, A., & Madfis, E. (2018b). Don’t name them, don’t show them, but report everything else: A pragmatic proposal for denying mass killers the attention they seek and deterring future offenders. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(2), 260–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lankford, A., Adkins, K. G., & Madfis, E. (2019). Are the deadliest mass shootings preventable? An assessment of leakage, information reported to law enforcement, and firearms acquisition prior to attacks in the United States. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 35(3), 315–341.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S. (2019, June 7). How the good guy with a gun became a deadly American fantasy. The Conversation. Retrieved June 8, 2019, from https://theconversation.com/how-the-good-guy-with-a-gun-became-a-deadly-american-fantasy-117367.

  • Leitsinger, M. (2012, March 8). When rumor, the Internet and school violence fears collide. Retrieved May 4, 2012, from http://usnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/03/08/10604539-when-rumor-the-internet-and-school-violence-fears-collide?lite.

  • Lockhart, P. R. (2019, February 6). A black security guard caught a shooting suspect—Only to be shot by police minutes later. Retrieved June 26, 2019, from https://www.vox.com/identities/2018/11/12/18088874/jemel-roberson-police-shooting-illinois-ian-covey-video.

  • Logan, C. (2002, May 2). Columbine jitters may cost a Kansas town millions. The Pitch. Retrieved July 5, 2010, from http://www.pitch.com/2002-05-02/news/tutu-careful/.

  • Lopez, G. (2017, November 6). The Texas shooting shows why “a good guy with a gun” isn’t enough. Retrieved June 26, 2019, from https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2017/11/6/16612014/sutherland-springs-shooting-good-guy-gun.

  • Lopez, G. (2018, June 21). America’s love for guns, in one chart. Retrieved June 26, 2019, from https://www.vox.com/2018/6/21/17488024/gun-ownership-violence-shootings-us.

  • Madfis, E. (2014). Averting school rampage: Student intervention amid a persistent code of silence. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 12(3), 229–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madfis, E. (2017). In search of meaning: Are school rampage shootings random and senseless violence? The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 151(1), 21–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madfis, E. (2018). Insight from averted mass shootings. In J. Schildkraut (Ed.), Mass shootings in America: Understanding the debates, causes, and responses (pp. 79–84). Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Madfis, E., & Levin, J. (2013). School rampage in international perspective: The salience of cumulative strain theory. In N. Böckler, W. Heitmeyer, P. Sitzer, & T. Seeger (Eds.), School shootings: International research, case studies, and concepts for prevention (pp. 79–104). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • May, A. (2018, March 13). Guns in school: It’s not just an idea. Here’s how some states are already doing it. Retrieved June 8, 2019, from https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2018/03/13/can-guns-schools-save-students-during-shooting-heres-what-states-say/418965002/.

  • Meindl, J. N., & Ivy, J. W. (2017). Mass shootings: The role of the media in promoting generalized imitation. American Journal of Public Health, 107, 368–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meindl, J. N., & Ivy, J. W. (2018). Reducing media-induced mass killings: Lessons from suicide prevention. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(2), 242–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mikkelson, D. (2015). Rumor: A school shooter in Pearl, Mississippi, was stopped from killing additional victims by an assistant principal with a gun. Retrieved June 24, 2019, from https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/full-stop/.

  • Morris, E. W. (2010). “Snitches end up in ditches” and other cautionary tales. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 26(3), 254–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, G. (2006). Deadly force programs among larger U.S. police departments. Police Quarterly, 9(3), 331–360.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, J. L. (2017). Mass media reporting and enabling of mass shootings. Cultural Studies, Critical Methodologies, 17, 114–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muschert, G. W. (2002). Media and massacre: The social construction of the Columbine story. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muschert, G. W. (2007). Research in school shootings. Sociology Compass, 1(1), 60–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mythen, G. (2008). Sociology and the art of risk. Sociology Compass, 2(1), 299–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • No Notoriety. (n.d.). Retrieved June 7, 2019, from https://nonotoriety.com/.

  • Ohana, D. (2007). Desert and punishment for acts preparatory to the commission of a crime. Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence, 20, 113–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Owen, T. (2018, March 10). Here’s all the states where teachers already carry guns in the classroom. Retrieved June 8, 2019, from https://news.vice.com/en_us/article/ywq8b5/teachers-armed-guns-classroom-state-laws.

  • Owen, T. (2019, March 26). Owning a bump stock can now get you 10 years in prison. Retrieved June 7, 2019, from https://news.vice.com/en_us/article/3kg9bv/owning-a-bump-stock-can-now-get-you-10-years-in-prison.

  • Pattillo, M., Weiman, D., & Western, B. (2004). Imprisoning America: The social effects of mass incarceration. New York: Russell Sage Foundation Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perrin, P. B. (2016). Translating psychological science: Highlighting the media’s contribution to contagion in mass shootings: Comment on Kaslow (2015). American Psychologist, 71, 71–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pollack, W. S., Modzeleski, W., & Rooney, G. (2008). Prior knowledge of potential school-based violence: Information students learn may prevent a targeted attack. Washington, DC: United States Secret Service and United States Department of Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raitanen, J., & Oksanen, A. (2018). Global online subculture surrounding school shootings. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(2), 195–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reddy, M., Borum, R., Berglund, J., Vossekuil, B., Fein, R., & Modzeleski, W. (2001). Evaluating risk for targeted violence in schools: Comparing risk assessment, threat assessment, and other approaches. Psychology in the Schools, 38(2), 157–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rocque, M. (2012). Exploring school rampage shootings: Research, theory, and policy. The Social Science Journal, 49(3), 304–313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum, D. P., Lurigio, A. J., & Davis, R. C. (Eds.). (1998). The prevention of crime: Social and situational strategies. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenfeld, R., Jacobs, B. A., & Wright, R. (2003). Snitching and the code of the street. British Journal of Criminology, 43, 291–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarteschi, C. (2016). An examination of thwarted mass homicide plots and threateners. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 30(1), 88–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Savage, C. (2018, December 18). Trump administration imposes ban on bump stocks. Retrieved June 7, 2019, from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/18/us/politics/trump-bump-stocks-ban.html.

  • Seletan, W. (2011, January 11). Friendly firearms: Gabrielle Giffords and the perils of guns: How an armed hero nearly shot the wrong man. Retrieved June 24, 2019, from https://slate.com/technology/2011/01/joe-zamudio-and-the-gabrielle-giffords-shooting-how-an-armed-hero-nearly-shot-the-wrong-man.html.

  • Shepard, S. (2018, February 28). Gun control support surges in polls. Retrieved June 26, 2019, from https://www.politico.com/story/2018/02/28/gun-control-polling-parkland-430099.

  • Sherman, L. W., Farrington, D. P., Welsh, B. C., & MacKenzie, D. L. (Eds.). (2002). Evidence-based crime prevention. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sidhu, S. S. (2017). Name no names: The role of the media in reporting mass shootings. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56, 3–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siebel, B., & Roston, A. (2007). No gun left behind—The gun lobby’s campaign to push guns into colleges and schools. Brady Center to Prevent Gun Violence. Retrieved June 24, 2019, from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=987861.

  • Sommer, F., Leuschner, V., & Scheithauer, H. (2014). Bullying, romantic rejection, and conflicts with teachers: The crucial role of social dynamics in the development of school shootings—A systematic review. International Journal of Developmental Science, 8, 3–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spjut, R. J. (1987). When is an attempt to commit an impossible crime a criminal act. Arizona Law Review, 29(2), 247–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Towers, S., Gomez-Lievano, A., Khan, M., Mubayi, A., & Castillo-Chavez, C. (2015). Contagion in mass killings and school shootings. PLoS One, 10(7), e0117259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trembley, R. E., & Craig, W. M. (1995). Developmental crime prevention. Crime and Justice, 19, 151–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vossekuil, B., Fein, R., Reddy, M., Borum, R., & Modzeleski, W. (2002). The final report and findings of the safe school initiative: Implications for the prevention of school attacks in the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wakefield, M. A., Loken, B., & Hornik, R. C. (2010). Use of mass media campaigns to change health behaviour. The Lancet, 376(9748), 1261–1271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wald, J., & Losen, D. J. (2003). Editors’ notes. In J. Wald & D. J. Losen (Eds.), New directions for youth development: Deconstructing the school-to-prison pipeline (pp. 1–2). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • White-Hamon, L. S. (2000). Mass murder and attempted mass murder: An examination of the perpetrator with an empirical analysis of typologies. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, Fresno, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wrangham, R., & Peterson, D. (1996). Demonic males: Apes and the origins of human violence. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yaffe, G. (2010). Attempts: In the philosophy of action and the criminal law. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Eric Madfis .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Madfis, E. (2020). Summary of Findings, Policy Implications, and Future Research. In: How to Stop School Rampage Killing. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37181-4_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37181-4_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-37180-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-37181-4

  • eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Navigation