Abstract
Humans have a limited postinjury regenerative ability. Therefore, cell-derived biomaterials have long been utilized for tissue repair. Cells with multipotent differentiation potential, such as stem cells, have been administered to patients for the treatment of various diseases. Researchers expected that these cells would mediate tissue repair and regeneration through their multipotency. However, increasing evidence has suggested that in most stem cell therapies, the paracrine effect but not cell differentiation or regeneration is the major driving force of tissue repair. Additionally, ethical and safety problems have limited the application of stem cell therapies. Therefore, nonliving cell-derived techniques such as extracellular vesicle (EV) therapy and cell membrane-based therapy to fulfil the unmet demand for tissue repair are important. Nonliving cell-derived biomaterials are safer and more controllable, and their efficacy is easier to enhance through bioengineering approaches. Here, we described the development and evolution from cell therapy to EV therapy and cell membrane-based therapy for tissue repair. Furthermore, the latest advances in nonliving cell-derived therapies empowered by advanced engineering techniques are emphatically reviewed, and their potential and challenges in the future are discussed.
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Introduction
Various diseases and accidents could lead to tissue loss and organ failure. In such situations, cells proliferate and differentiate to regenerate lost cells or tissues, along with the synthesis and resolution of extracellular matrix and subsequent modulation of fibrosis and scar tissue formation. In contrast to nonmammalian vertebrates such as salamanders, in which the capability of scar-free repair and multiple organ regeneration are maintained throughout their life, humans have a limited ability for self-regeneration, which is progressively lost throughout our life. After injury, only a few organs, such as the liver and blood, can completely regenerate in adults, while in most other tissues, fibrosis or scar formation develops as a consequence of the recession of the regenerative capability [173]. Such a spontaneously responsive drug release system was established through an effort to thoroughly study the mechanism of the physiological process in the human body, which indicates that there is still a vast space for future research and development in the field of cell-derived biomaterials for tissue repair.
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The data supporting the conclusions of this article are included within the article.
Abbreviations
- EVs:
-
Extracellular vesicles
- ESCs:
-
Embryonic stem cells
- iPSCs:
-
Induced pluripotent stem cells
- HSCs:
-
Hematopoietic stem cells
- MSCs:
-
Mesenchymal stem cells
- PSCs:
-
Pluripotent stem cells
- hESCs:
-
Human embryonic stem cells
- MI:
-
Myocardial infarction
- BM-MSCs:
-
Bone marrow–derived mesenchymal stem cells
- HGF-eMSCs:
-
Hepatocyte growth factor–expressing MSCs
- IFN-γ:
-
Interferon-gamma
- Tregs:
-
Regulatory T cells
- hucMSC:
-
Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell
- ASCs:
-
Adipose-derived stem cells
- RVG:
-
Rabies viral glycoprotein
- DC:
-
Dendritic cell
- IONP:
-
Iron oxide nanoparticle
- SEVs:
-
Small EVs
- AD:
-
Alzheimer disease
- RBCs:
-
Red blood cells
- PLT:
-
Platelet
- MPs:
-
Microparticles
- ASSP:
-
Artificial stem cell spheroid
- PLGA:
-
Poly(lactic‐co‐glycolic) acid
- I/R:
-
Ischemia–reperfusion
- PD:
-
Parkinson disease
- VCAM1:
-
Vascular cells adhering molecule 1
- BBB:
-
Blood–brain barrier
- ROS:
-
Reactive oxygen species
- IL:
-
Interleukin
- TNF‐α:
-
Tumour necrosis factor alpha
- TLR4:
-
Toll-like receptor 4
- TRAIL:
-
Tumour necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand
- TPP:
-
Triphenylphosphine
- rtPA:
-
Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator
- PS:
-
Phosphatidylserine
- RvD2:
-
Resolvin D2
- MSN:
-
Mesoporous silica nanoparticle
- CSCs:
-
Cardiac stem cells
- OMM:
-
Outer mitochondrial membrane
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This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 81773096, 82072650 and 51822306) and Key Research and Development Program of Zhejiang Province (No. 2018C03085 and 2021C03121).
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YD and CW wrote the first draft; ZS drew the figures; YW and WY polished the draft; ZW and WW reviewed and revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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Ding, Y., Li, Y., Sun, Z. et al. Cell-derived extracellular vesicles and membranes for tissue repair. J Nanobiotechnol 19, 368 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12951-021-01113-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12951-021-01113-x