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Toluidine blue O directly and photodynamically impairs the bioenergetics of liver mitochondria: a potential mechanism of hepatotoxicity

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Abstract

Toluidine blue O (TBO) is a phenothiazine dye that, due to its photochemical characteristics and high affinity for biomembranes, has been revealed as a new photosensitizer (PS) option for antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (PDT). This points to a possible association with membranous organelles like mitochondrion. Therefore, here we investigated its effects on mitochondrial bioenergetic functions both in the dark and under photostimulation. Two experimental systems were utilized: (a) isolated rat liver mitochondria and (b) isolated perfused rat liver. Our data revealed that, independently of photostimulation, TBO presented affinity for mitochondria. Under photostimulation, TBO increased the protein carbonylation and lipid peroxidation levels (up to 109.40 and 119.87%, respectively) and decreased the reduced glutathione levels (59.72%) in mitochondria. TBO also uncoupled oxidative phosphorylation and photoinactivated the respiratory chain complexes I, II, and IV, as well as the FoF1-ATP synthase complex. Without photostimulation, TBO caused uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and loss of inner mitochondrial membrane integrity and inhibited very strongly succinate oxidase activity. TBO’s uncoupling effect was clearly seen in intact livers where it stimulated oxygen consumption at concentrations of 20 and 40 μM. Additionally, TBO (40 μM) reduced cellular ATP levels (52.46%) and ATP/ADP (45.98%) and ATP/AMP (74.17%) ratios. Consequently, TBO inhibited gluconeogenesis and ureagenesis whereas it stimulated glycogenolysis and glycolysis. In conclusion, we have revealed for the first time that the efficiency of TBO as a PS may be linked to its ability to photodynamically inhibit oxidative phosphorylation. In contrast, TBO is harmful to mitochondrial energy metabolism even without photostimulation, which may lead to adverse effects when used in PDT.

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The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

Emy Luiza Ishii-Iwamoto, Rogério Marchiosi, Osvaldo Ferrarese-Filho, and Wanderley Dantas dos Santos are research fellows of the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq). This study was financed in part by the Coordination of Enhancement of Higher Education Personal (CAPES)—Finance Code 001. The authors would like to express their gratitude for the technical assistance of Aparecida Pinto Munhos Hermoso and Célia Akemi Gasparetto. We also gratefully acknowledge the instrumental research facilities provided by the Complexo de Centrais de Apoio à Pesquisa (COMCAP) at the State University of Maringá (UEM).

Funding

This study was supported by grants from the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Araucaria Foundation (FA), and Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES). The sponsors had no involvement in the study design, research execution, results interpretation, report writing, or the decision to submit the article for publication.

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  1. Karina Borba Paulino dos Santos and Ana Flavia Gatto Raimundo contributed equally and should be considered co-first authors.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biochemistry, Laboratory of Biological Oxidations, State University of Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, 87020-900, Brazil

    Karina Borba Paulino dos Santos, Ana Flavia Gatto Raimundo, Eduardo Makiyama Klosowski, Byanca Thais Lima de Souza, Márcio Shigueaki Mito, Gislaine Cristiane Mantovanelli, Juliana Morais Mewes, Paulo Francisco Veiga Bizerra, Paulo Vinicius Moreira da Costa Menezes, Karina Sayuri Utsunomiya, Eduardo Hideo Gilglioni, Jorgete Constantin, Emy Luiza Ishii-Iwamoto & Rodrigo Polimeni Constantin

  2. Department of Biochemistry, Laboratory of Plant Biochemistry, State University of Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, 87020-900, Brazil

    Renato Polimeni Constantin, Rogério Marchiosi, Wanderley Dantas dos Santos, Osvaldo Ferrarese-Filho & Rodrigo Polimeni Constantin

  3. Department of Chemistry, Research Nucleus in Photodynamic System, State University of Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, 87020-900, Brazil

    Wilker Caetano, Paulo Cesar de Souza Pereira & Renato Sonchini Gonçalves

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Contributions

KBPdS: Investigation and Data Curation; AFGR: Investigation and Data Curation; EMK: Investigation; BTLdS: Investigation; MSM: Investigation; RPC: Investigation; GCM: Investigation; JMM: Investigation; PFVB: Investigation; PVMdCM: Investigation; KSU: Formal analysis; EHG: Formal analysis; RM: Methodology, Formal analysis, Resources, and Writing—Review & Editing; WDdS: Methodology, Formal analysis, and Resources; OFF: Methodology, Formal analysis, and Resources; WC: Conceptualization, Resources and Methodology; PCdSP: Investigation and Methodology; RSG: Investigation and Methodology; JC: Methodology, Formal analysis, and Resources; ELII: Funding acquisition, Conceptualization, Writing—Review & Editing; RPC: Conceptualization, Data curation, Writing—Original Draft, Project administration.

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Correspondence to Rodrigo Polimeni Constantin.

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dos Santos, K.B.P., Raimundo, A.F.G., Klosowski, E.M. et al. Toluidine blue O directly and photodynamically impairs the bioenergetics of liver mitochondria: a potential mechanism of hepatotoxicity. Photochem Photobiol Sci 22, 279–302 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43630-022-00312-1

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