Abstract
Achieving Sustainability Transition (ST) targets poses challenges for public authorities, decision-makers, and policies. It is not enough to rely on a single policy instrument. Policy researchers have yet to fully explore the reasons and methods for policy mixes and how different policies interact. This article looks at two critical questions regarding policy mixes: Do they align with each other both vertically and horizontally? Furthermore, do they continue to move in a consistent direction as they learn? ST policies are generally conceived under a comprehensive vision and a societal change perspective. However, studies still need to attempt to combine the concepts of learning and directionality into a time perspective for evaluating the ST policy mix. In this vein, the paper aims to design a conceptual framework for bridging this gap and consider policy mix evaluation as a continuous nested process rather than a sequential process. To answer the two previous questions, we applied this conceptual framework to a case study to evaluate the coherence of a specific ST policy mix via learning and directionality. Our findings demonstrate that policy coherence can be understood not only through static interactions but also through dynamic interactions between objectives and instruments.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs43508-024-00093-6/MediaObjects/43508_2024_93_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs43508-024-00093-6/MediaObjects/43508_2024_93_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs43508-024-00093-6/MediaObjects/43508_2024_93_Fig3_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs43508-024-00093-6/MediaObjects/43508_2024_93_Fig4_HTML.png)
Data availability
The author confirms that all data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article. Furthermore, primary and secondary sources and data supporting the findings of this study were all publicly available at the time of submission.
References
Aall, C., Groven, K., & Lindseth, G. (2007). The scope of action for local climate policy: The case of Norway. Global Environmental Politics, 7(2), 83–101.
Alkemade, F., & de Coninck, H. (2021). Policy mixes for sustainability transitions must embrace system dynamics. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 41, 24–26.
Ambrose, S. A., Bridges, M. W., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M. C., & Norman, M. K. (2010). How learning works: Seven research-based principles for smart teaching. John Wiley & Sons.
Bennett, C. J., & Howlett, M. (1992). The lessons of learning: Reconciling theories of policy learning and policy change. Policy Sciences, 25(3), 275–294.
Bergek, A., Hellsmark, H., & Karltorp, K. (2023). Directionality challenges for transformative innovation policy: lessons from implementing climate goals in the process industry. Industry and Innovation, 30, 1110–1139.
Bolleyer, N., & Börzel, T. A. (2010). Non-hierarchical policy coordination in multilevel systems. European Political Science Review, 2(2), 157–185.
Borrás, S., & Edquist, C. (2013). The choice of innovation policy instruments. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 80(8), 1513–1522.
Braun, D., Gross, M., & Rittberger, B. (2020). Political behavior in the EU multi-level system. Politics and Governance, 8(1), 1–5.
Caffrey, L., & Munro, E. (2017). A systems approach to policy evaluation. Evaluation, 23(4), 463–478.
Capano, G., & Howlett, M. (2020). The knowns and unknowns of policy instrument analysis: Policy tools and the current research agenda on policy mixes. SAGE Open, 10(1), 2158244019900568.
Capano, G., Pritoni, A., & Vicentini, G. (2020). Do policy instruments matter? Governments’ choice of policy mix and higher education performance in Western Europe. Journal of Public Policy, 40(3), 375–401.
Cejudo, G. M., & Michel, C. L. (2017). Addressing fragmented government action: Coordination, coherence, and integration. Policy Sciences, 50, 745–767.
Coenen, L., Benneworth, P., & Truffer, B. (2012). Toward a spatial perspective on sustainability transitions. Research Policy, 41(6), 968–979.
Corradini, M., Costantini, V., Markandya, A., Paglialunga, E., & Sforna, G. (2018). A dynamic assessment of instrument interaction and timing alternatives in the EU low-carbon policy mix design. Energy Policy, 120, 73–84.
Del Río, P. (2009). Interactions between climate and energy policies: the case of Spain. Climate Policy, 9(2), 119–138.
Del Río, P. (2014). On evaluating success in complex policy mixes: The case of renewable energy support schemes. Policy Sciences, 47, 267–287.
Domorenok, E., & Zito, A. R. (2021). Engines of learning? Policy instruments, cities and climate governance. Policy Sciences, 54(3), 507–528.
Dunlop, C. A., & Radaelli, C. M. (2013). Systematising policy learning: From monolith to dimensions. Political Studies, 61(3), 599–619.
Edler, J., & Boon, W. P. (2018). ‘The next generation of innovation policy: Directionality and the role of demand-oriented instruments’—Introduction to the special section. Science and Public Policy, 45(4), 433–434.
Flanagan, K., Uyarra, E., & Laranja, M. (2011). Reconceptualising the ‘policy mix’for innovation. Research Policy, 40(5), 702–713.
Gehrke, S. R., & Clifton, K. J. (2016). Toward a spatial-temporal measure of land-use mix. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 9(1), 171–186.
Gössling, S. (2009). Carbon neutral destinations: A conceptual analysis. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(1), 17–37.
Hou, Y., & Brewer, G. A. (2010). Substitution and supplementation between co-functional policy instruments: Evidence from state budget stabilization practices. Public Administration Review, 70(6), 914–924.
Howlett, M. (2009). Governance modes, policy regimes and operational plans: A multi-level nested model of policy instrument choice and policy design. Policy Sciences, 42, 73–89.
Howlett, M., & Del Rio, P. (2015). The parameters of policy portfolios: Verticality and horizontality in design spaces and their consequences for policy mix formulation. Environment and Planning c: Government and Policy, 33(5), 1233–1245.
Howlett, M., & Rayner, J. (2007). Design principles for policy mixes: Cohesion and coherence in ‘new governance arrangements.’ Policy and Society, 26(4), 1–18.
Howlett, M., Vince, J., & del Río, P. (2017). Policy integration and multi-level governance: dealing with the vertical dimension of policy mix designs. Politics and Governance, 5(2), 69–78.
Huang, P. (2019). The verticality of policy mixes for sustainability transitions: A case study of solar water heating in China. Research Policy, 48(10), 103758.
Huttunen, S., Kivimaa, P., & Virkamäki, V. (2014). The need for policy coherence to trigger a transition to biogas production. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 12, 14–30.
Jordan, A., & Huitema, D. (2014). Innovations in climate policy: The politics of invention, diffusion, and evaluation. Environmental Politics, 23(5), 715–734.
Justen, A., Schippl, J., Lenz, B., & Fleischer, T. (2014). Assessment of policies and detection of unintended effects: Guiding principles for the consideration of methods and tools in policy-packaging. Transportation Research Part a: Policy and Practice, 60, 19–30.
Kern, F., & Howlett, M. (2009). Implementing transition management as policy reforms: A case study of the Dutch energy sector. Policy Sciences, 42, 391–408.
Kern, F., Rogge, K. S., & Howlett, M. (2019). Policy mixes for sustainability transitions: New approaches and insights through bridging innovation and policy studies. Research Policy, 48(10), 103832.
Kivimaa, P., & Kern, F. (2016). Creative destruction or mere niche support? Innovation policy mixes for sustainability transitions. Research Policy, 45(1), 205–217.
Kivimaa, P., Kangas, H. L., & Lazarevic, D. (2017). Client-oriented evaluation of ‘creative destruction’in policy mixes: Finnish policies on building energy efficiency transition. Energy Research & Social Science, 33, 115–127.
Lehmann, P. (2012). Justifying a policy mix for pollution control: A review of economic literature. Journal of Economic Surveys, 26(1), 71–97.
Leong, C., Howlett, M., & Lai, T. (2022). Governing complex environmental policy mixes through institutional bricolage: Lessons from the water-forestry-energy-climate nexus. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 24(5), 540–552.
Loorbach, D. (2007). Governance for sustainability. Sustainability Science, Practice and Policy, 3(2), 1–4.
Loorbach, D., Frantzeskaki, N., & Avelino, F. (2017). Sustainability transitions research: Transforming science and practice for societal change. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 42, 599–626.
Luederitz, C., Schäpke, N., Wiek, A., Lang, D. J., Bergmann, M., Bos, J. J., & Westley, F. R. (2017). Learning through evaluation–A tentative evaluative scheme for sustainability transition experiments. Journal of Cleaner Production, 169, 61–76.
Magro, E., & Wilson, J. R. (2013). Complex innovation policy systems: Towards an evaluation mix. Research Policy, 42(9), 1647–1656.
Magro, E., & Wilson, J. R. (2019). Policy-mix evaluation: Governance challenges from new place-based innovation policies. Research Policy, 48(10), 103612.
Mäkitie, T., Hanson, J., Steen, M., Hansen, T., & Andersen, A. D. (2020). The sectoral interdependencies of low-carbon innovations in sustainability transitions
Matti, C., Consoli, D., & Uyarra, E. (2017). Multi-level policy mixes and industry emergence: The case of wind energy in Spain. Environment and Planning c: Politics and Space, 35(4), 661–683.
May, P. J., Sapotichne, J., & Workman, S. (2006). Policy coherence and policy domains. Policy Studies Journal, 34(3), 381–403.
Mickwitz, P., & Birnbaum, M. (2009). Key insights for the design of environmental evaluations. New Directions for Evaluation, 2009(122), 105–112.
Nauwelaers, C., Boekholk, P., Mostert, B., Cunningham, P., Guy, K., Hofer, R. & Rammer, C. (2009). Policy mixes for r&d in Europe. European Commission–Directorate-General for Research, Maastricht
Nieminen, M., & Hyytinen, K. (2015). Future-oriented impact assessment: Supporting strategic decision-making in complex socio-technical environments. Evaluation, 21(4), 448–461.
Nilsson, M., Zamparutti, T., Petersen, J. E., Nykvist, B., Rudberg, P., & McGuinn, J. (2012). Understanding policy coherence: Analytical framework and examples of sector–environment policy interactions in the EU. Environmental Policy and Governance, 22(6), 395–423.
Norwegian Government. (2018). Better growth, lower emissions: The Norwegian Government’s strategy for green competitiveness. Available online: (Accessed on 11 April 2022). https://www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/4a98ed15ec264d0e938863448ebf7ba8/t-1562e.pdf
Norwegian Maritime Authority. (2016). Emissions to air. Available online: https://www.sdir.no/en/ship**/vessels/environment/prevention-of-pollution-from-ships/emissions-to-air/. Accessed on 11 April 2022.
Olsson, P., Galaz, V., & Boonstra, W. J. (2014). Sustainability transformations: a resilience perspective. Ecology and Society. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-06799-190401
Philibert, C. (2011). Interactions of policies for renewable energy and climate (IEA Energy Paper).
Raven, R., & Walrave, B. (2020). Overcoming transformational failures through policy mixes in the dynamics of technological innovation systems. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 153, 119297.
Reichardt, K., & Rogge, K. (2016). How the policy mix impacts innovation: Findings from company case studies on offshore wind in Germany. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 18, 62–81.
Reichardt, K., Negro, S. O., Rogge, K. S., & Hekkert, M. P. (2016). Analyzing interdependencies between policy mixes and technological innovation systems: The case of offshore wind in Germany. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 106, 11–21.
Robinson, D. K., & Mazzucato, M. (2019). The evolution of mission-oriented policies: Exploring changing market creating policies in the US and European space sector. Research Policy, 48(4), 936–948.
Rogge, K. S., & Reichardt, K. (2016). Policy mixes for sustainability transitions: An extended concept and framework for analysis. Research Policy, 45(8), 1620–1635.
Rogge, K. S., Kern, F., & Howlett, M. (2017). Conceptual and empirical advances in analysing policy mixes for energy transitions. Energy Research & Social Science, 33, 1–10.
Rosenow, J., Kern, F., & Rogge, K. (2017). The need for comprehensive and well targeted instrument mixes to stimulate energy transitions: The case of energy efficiency policy. Energy Research & Social Science, 33, 95–104.
Rotmans, J., Kemp, R., & Van Asselt, M. (2001). More evolution than revolution: transition management in public policy. Foresight. https://doi.org/10.1108/14636680110803003
Schmidt, T. S., Schneider, M., Rogge, K. S., Schuetz, M. J., & Hoffmann, V. H. (2012). The effects of climate policy on the rate and direction of innovation: A survey of the EU ETS and the electricity sector. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 2, 23–48.
Schot, J., & Steinmueller, W. E. (2018). Three frames for innovation policy: R&D, systems of innovation and transformative change. Research Policy, 47(9), 1554–1567.
Scordato, L., Klitkou, A., Tartiu, V. E., & Coenen, L. (2018). Policy mixes for the sustainability transition of the pulp and paper industry in Sweden. Journal of Cleaner Production, 183, 1216–1227.
Shao, J., & Huang, P. (2023). The policy mix of green finance in China: An evolutionary and multilevel perspective. Climate Policy, 23(6), 689–703.
Singer-Brodowski, M. (2023). The potential of transformative learning for sustainability transitions: moving beyond formal learning environments. Environment, Development and Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02444-x
Smith, A., & Stirling, A. (2010). The politics of social-ecological resilience and sustainable socio-technical transitions. Ecology and Society. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-03218-150111
Smith, A., Voß, J. P., & Grin, J. (2010). Innovation studies and sustainability transitions: The allure of the multi-level perspective and its challenges. Research Policy, 39(4), 435–448.
T.B.C.S. (2007). Assessing, Selecting, andImplementing Instruments forGovernment Action. Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat Report.
Van Mierlo, B., & Beers, P. J. (2020). Understanding and governing learning in sustainability transitions: A review. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 34, 255–269.
Van Mierlo, B., Halbe, J., Beers, P. J., Scholz, G., & Vinke-de Kruijf, J. (2020). Learning about learning in sustainability transitions. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 34, 251–254.
Verbong, G. P., & Geels, F. W. (2010). Exploring sustainability transitions in the electricity sector with socio-technical pathways. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 77(8), 1214–1221.
Walker, W. E., Rahman, S. A., & Cave, J. (2001). Adaptive policies, policy analysis, and policy-making. European Journal of Operational Research, 128(2), 282–289.
Weber, K. M., & Rohracher, H. (2012). Legitimizing research, technology and innovation policies for transformative change: Combining insights from innovation systems and multi-level perspective in a comprehensive ‘failures’ framework. Research Policy, 41(6), 1037–1047.
Williams, S., & Robinson, J. (2020). Measuring sustainability: An evaluation framework for sustainability transition experiments. Environmental Science & Policy, 103, 58–66.
Wurzel, R. K., Zito, A. R., & Jordan, A. J. (2013). Environmental governance in Europe: A comparative analysis of the use of new environmental policy instruments. Edward Elgar Publishing.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The author declares that he has no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Laribi, S. Exploring coherence, learning and directionality in policy mixes for sustainability transition: the case of the Norwegian maritime transport’s decarbonization. GPPG (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43508-024-00093-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43508-024-00093-6