Abstract
This study aimed to measure validity and reliability of the Persian version of the Cyber-Bullying/Victimization Experience Questionnaire (CBVEQ) among Iranian adolescents. This cross-sectional validation study was conducted on Iranian adolescents between January 2022 and September 2022. Online questionnaires were completed by a total of 1439 Iranian high school students, with an age range of 14–18 years (M = 15.93 years, SD = 1.43). Participants completed Cyber-Bullying/Victimization Experience Questionnaire (CBVEQ), Online Disinhibition, Sensation Seeking, Empathy, and School Connectedness questionnaires. The validity and reliability of the CBVEQ were assessed through measures including Cronbach's alpha, construct validity via Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), and evaluations of divergent and convergent validity. The CFA indicated that a two-factor model provides a good fit for the data: (sbX2 = 3011.31 (p < 0.01); SRMR = 0.06; CFI = 0.96; NFI = 0.96; IFI = 0.96; PNFI = 0.86; GFI = 0.83; RMSEA = 0.088). Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the self-escapism was 0.89. There was a significant positive relationship between CBVEQ with online disinhibition (r = 0.47; P < 0.01) and sensation seeking (r = 0.44; P < 0.01). The finding showed significant negative relationship between CBVEQ score with school connectedness (SC) (r = -0.35; P < 0.01), and empathy (r = -0.42; P < 0.01). In addition, the findings have shown a relationship between CBVEQ and maternal educational status. Iranian researchers and specialists can use this scale for research or assessment purposes in Iranian adolescents to expand the existing knowledge about preventing and reducing cyberbullying.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability Statement
Datasets generated and analyzed during this study will be provided upon reasonable request by corresponding author.
References
Alhujailli, A., Karwowski, W., Wan, T. T. H., & Hancock, P. (2020). Affective and Stress Consequences of Cyberbullying. Symmetry, 12 (9), 1536. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12091536
Antoniadou, N., Kokkinos, C. M., & Fanti, K. A. (2019). Traditional and Cyber Bullying/Victimization Among Adolescents: Examining Their Psychosocial Profile Through Latent Profile Analysis. International Journal of Bullying Prevention, 1 (2), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-019-00010-0
Antoniadou, N., Kokkinos, C. M., & Markos, A. (2016a). Development, construct validation and measurement invariance of the Greek cyber-bullying/victimization experiences questionnaire (CBVEQ-G). Computers in Human Behavior, 65, 380–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.08.032
Antoniadou, N., Kokkinos, C. M., & Markos, A. (2016b). Possible common correlates between bullying and cyber-bullying among adolescents. Psicología Educativa, 22 (1), 27–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pse.2016.01.003
Baldry, A. C., Farrington, D. P., & Sorrentino, A. (2015). “Am I at risk of cyberbullying”? A narrative review and conceptual framework for research on risk of cyberbullying and cybervictimization: The risk and needs assessment approach. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 23, 36–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.014
Boateng, G. O., Neilands, T. B., Frongillo, E. A., Melgar-Quiñonez, H. R., & Young, S. L. (2018). Best Practices for Develo** and Validating Scales for Health, Social, and Behavioral Research: A Primer. Frontiers in Public Health, 6 (June), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00149
Brewer, G., & Kerslake, J. (2015). Cyberbullying, self-esteem, empathy and loneliness. Computers in Human Behavior, 48, 255–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.073
Casale, S., Fiovaranti, G., & Caplan, S. (2015). Online Disinhibition: Precursors and Outcomes. Journal of Media Psychology, 27 (4), 170–177. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000136
Chung-Do, J. J., Goebert, D. A., Chang, J. Y., & Hamagani, F. (2015). Develo** a Comprehensive School Connectedness Scale for Program Evaluation. Journal of School Health, 85 (3), 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12237
Desimone, L. M., & Le Floch, K. C. (2004). Are We Asking the Right Questions? Using Cognitive Interviews to Improve Surveys in Education Research. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 26 (1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737026001001
Erikson, E. H. (1965). Psychoanalysis and Ongoing History: Problems of Identity, Hatred and Nonviolence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 122 (3), 241–253. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.122.3.241
García-Fernández, C. M., Moreno-Moya, M., Ortega-Ruiz, R., & Romera, E. M. (2022). Adolescent Involvement in Cybergossip: Influence on Social Adjustment, Bullying and Cyberbullying. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 25, e6. https://doi.org/10.1017/SJP.2022.3
Gini, G., & Espelage, D. L. (2014). Peer Victimization, Cyberbullying, and Suicide Risk in Children and Adolescents. JAMA, 312 (5), 545. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.3212
Hambleton, R. K., & de Jong, J. H. A. L. (2003). Advances in translating and adapting educational and psychological tests. Language Testing, 20 (2), 127–134. https://doi.org/10.1191/0265532203lt247xx
Hemphill, S. A., Kotevski, A., & Heerde, J. A. (2015). Longitudinal associations between cyber-bullying perpetration and victimization and problem behavior and mental health problems in young Australians. International Journal of Public Health, 60 (2), 227–237. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-014-0644-9
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2008). Cyberbullying: An Exploratory Analysis of Factors Related to Offending and Victimization. Deviant Behavior, 29 (2), 129–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639620701457816
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2010). Bullying, Cyberbullying, and Suicide. Archives of Suicide Research, 14 (3), 206–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2010.494133
Hoareau, N., Bagès, C., & Guerrien, A. (2021). Cyberbullying, Self-control, Information, and Electronic Communication Technologies: Do Adolescents Know How to Exercise Self-control on the Internet? International Journal of Bullying Prevention. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-021-00099-2
Hoyle, R. H., Stephenson, M. T., Palmgreen, P., Lorch, E. P., & Donohew, R. L. (2002). Reliability and validity of a brief measure of sensation seeking. Personality and Individual Differences, 32 (3), 401–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00032-0
Jiang, Q., Zhao, F., **e, X., Wang, X., Nie, J., Lei, L., & Wang, P. (2022). Difficulties in Emotion Regulation and Cyberbullying Among Chinese Adolescents: A Mediation Model of Loneliness and Depression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(1–2), NP1105–NP1124. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520917517
Jolliffe, D., & Farrington, D. P. (2006). Development and validation of the Basic Empathy Scale. Journal of Adolescence, 29 (4), 589–611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.08.010
Kabiri, S., Shadmanfaat, S. M. S., Choi, J., & Yun, I. (2020). The impact of life domains on cyberbullying perpetration in Iran: A partial test of Agnew’s general theory of crime. Journal of Criminal Justice, 66, 101633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2019.101633
Kim, E. K., Furlong, M. J., & Dowdy, E. (2019). Adolescents’ Personality Traits and Positive Psychological Orientations: Relations with Emotional Distress and Life Satisfaction Mediated by School Connectedness. Child Indicators Research, 12 (6), 1951–1969. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-019-9619-y
Kokkinos, C. M., & Antoniadou, N. (2013). Bullying and victimization experiences in elementary school students nominated by their teachers for Specific Learning Disabilities. School Psychology International, 34 (6), 674–690. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034313479712
Kokkinos, C. M., Antoniadou, N., Asdre, A., & Voulgaridou, K. (2016). Parenting and Internet Behavior Predictors of Cyber-Bullying and Cyber-Victimization among Preadolescents. Deviant Behavior, 37 (4), 439–455. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2015.1060087
Kokkinos, C. M., Antoniadou, N., & Markos, A. (2014). Cyber-bullying: An investigation of the psychological profile of university student participants. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35 (3), 204–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.04.001
Kokkinos, C. M., & Kipritsi, E. (2018). Bullying, moral disengagement and empathy: Exploring the links among early adolescents. Educational Psychology, 38 (4), 535–552. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2017.1363376
Kokkinos, C. M., & Voulgaridou, I. (2017). Relational and cyber aggression among adolescents: Personality and emotion regulation as moderators. Computers in Human Behavior, 68, 528–537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.046
Law, D. M., Shapka, J. D., Domene, J. F., & Gagné, M. H. (2012). Are Cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Computers in Human Behavior, 28 (2), 664–672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.11.013
Lee, J., Chun, J., Kim, J., & Lee, J. (2020). Cyberbullying victimisation and school dropout intention among South Korean adolescents: The moderating role of peer/teacher support. Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development, 30 (3), 195–211. https://doi.org/10.1080/02185385.2020.1774409
Menesini, E., Nocentini, A., & Camodeca, M. (2013). Morality, values, traditional bullying, and cyberbullying in adolescence: Morality and values in cyber and traditional bullying. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 31 (1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.2011.02066.x
Mittmann, G., Woodcock, K., Dörfler, S., Krammer, I., Pollak, I., & Schrank, B. (2022). “TikTok Is My Life and Snapchat Is My Ventricle”: A Mixed-Methods Study on the Role of Online Communication Tools for Friendships in Early Adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42 (2), 172–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211020368
Morahan-Martin, J., & Schumacher, P. (2000). Incidence and correlates of pathological Internet use among college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 16 (1), 13–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0747-5632(99)00049-7
Ni, Q., Lu, X., Chen, C., Du, H., & Zhang, R. (2019). Risk factors for the development of hyperuricemia: A STROBE-compliant cross-sectional and longitudinal study. Medicine, 98 (42), e17597. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000017597
Schneider, S. K., O’Donnell, L., Stueve, A., & Coulter, R. W. S. (2012). Cyberbullying, School Bullying, and Psychological Distress: A Regional Census of High School Students. American Journal of Public Health, 102 (1), 171–177. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300308
Sheanoda, V., Bussey, K., & Jones, T. (2021). Sexuality, gender and culturally diverse interpretations of cyberbullying. New Media & Society, 146144482110553. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211055366
Smith, P. K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., Fisher, S., Russell, S., & Tippett, N. (2008). Cyberbullying: Its nature and impact in secondary school pupils. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49 (4), 376–385. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01846.x
Strohmeier, D., & Gradinger, P. (2022). Cyberbullying and Cyber Victimization as Online Risks for Children and Adolescents. European Psychologist, 27 (2), 141–150. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000479
Thomas, H. J., Connor, J. P., & Scott, J. G. (2015). Integrating Traditional Bullying and Cyberbullying: Challenges of Definition and Measurement in Adolescents – a Review. Educational Psychology Review, 27 (1), 135–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-014-9261-7
Waasdorp, T. E., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2015). The Overlap Between Cyberbullying and Traditional Bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 56 (5), 483–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.12.002
Yang, F. (2021). Co** strategies, cyberbullying behaviors, and depression among Chinese netizens during the COVID-19 pandemic: A web-based nationwide survey. Journal of Affective Disorders, 281, 138–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.023
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all the participants who generously dedicated their time and actively took part in this study.
Funding
We would like to clarify that no outside funding was received for this research. The study was conducted without any financial support from external organizations or entities.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Study Design: RN, SH, NGH, PW, SS. Data Collection and Analysis: RN, SH, NGH. Manuscript Preparation: RN, SH, NGH, PW, SS.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interests
There are no conflicts of interest to declare for this study. All authors have no financial or personal relationships that could influence the research findings or the publication process.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Nooripour, R., Hosseinian, S., Ghanbari, N. et al. Validity and Reliability of Persian Version of Cyber-Bullying /Victimization Experience Questionnaire (CBVEQ) Among Iranian Adolescents. Int Journal of Bullying Prevention (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-024-00211-2
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-024-00211-2