Abstract
This research investigated the suitability of gray water as a non-conventional water source in the concrete production. The findings showed that both gray and tap water can be considered as mixing water, but based on water quality indicators for industry usage, gray water cannot be used without restrictions to build reinforced concrete structures due to its high corrosive ability. Gray water had no significant effect on the slump and setting time of the concrete. The compressive strength of concrete made with tap water increases from 7 days to 28 days, while gray water concrete, after an increasing trend from 7 days to 14 days, reached its lowest value at 28 days (28.1 MPa). This decrease is due to high TDS values and impurities, which can lead to a decrease in compressive strength. Gray water concrete showed a significant loss in tensile strength compared to tap water concrete after 28 days of curing. The P-wave velocity of the tap water concrete sample increased with the increase in curing time, while the gray water sample decreased by 13% in 28 days. Microscopic studies revealed the formation of carbonate halos around carbonate aggregates due to alkaline reactions in both tap and gray water concretes. The carbonate halo has developed to the inner parts of the aggregates in the gray water sample, indicating greater intensity of alkaline reactions. This means the long-term strength of the concrete will likely suffer a significant loss.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40996-024-01550-2/MediaObjects/40996_2024_1550_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40996-024-01550-2/MediaObjects/40996_2024_1550_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40996-024-01550-2/MediaObjects/40996_2024_1550_Fig3_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40996-024-01550-2/MediaObjects/40996_2024_1550_Fig4_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40996-024-01550-2/MediaObjects/40996_2024_1550_Fig5_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40996-024-01550-2/MediaObjects/40996_2024_1550_Fig6_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40996-024-01550-2/MediaObjects/40996_2024_1550_Fig7_HTML.png)
References
ACIE (2010) Aggregates for concrete. Constr Mater Their Nat Behav fourth ed:114–119
Agrawal Y, Gupta T, Chaudhary S (2022) Effect of mechanically treated and untreated zinc tailing waste as cement substitute in concrete production: an experimental and statistical analysis. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29:28598–28623. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-17845-0
Aldayel Aldossary MH, Ahmad S, Bahraq AA (2020) Effect of total dissolved solids-contaminated water on the properties of concrete. J Building Eng 32:101496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101496
Asadollahfardi G, Mahdavi AR (2019) The feasibility of using treated industrial wastewater to produce concrete. Struct Concrete 20:123–132
ASTM (2012) Standard test method for density, relative density (specific gravity), and absorption of coarse aggregate. C127-12
ASTM C 109109 M-07 (2008) Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars:1–9
ASTM-C-136 (2005) Standard test method for sieve analysis of fine and coarse aggregates. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA
ASTM-C-143 (2009) Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete Engineered Concrete: 99–101
ASTM-C-191-99 (2003) Standard Test Method for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle ASTM Standards 4
ASTM-C-496 (1996) Test Method for Splitting Tensile strength of cylindrical concrete. Specimens Annual Book of ASTM. Standards 4
ASTM-C33 (2003) Standard specifications for concrete aggregates. ASTM Standard Book
ASTM-C597-83 (1990) Pulse velocity. Through Concrete American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia
ASTM-C94 (1916) Standard specification for ready mixed concrete. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA
Babu GR, Reddy BM, Ramana NV (2018) Quality of mixing water in cement concrete a review Materials Today: Proceedings 5:1313–1320
Bahraman M, Asadollahfardi G, Salehi AM, Yahyaei B (2021) Feasibility study of using wash water from ready mixed concrete plant and synthetic wastewater based on tap water with different total dissolved solid to produce self-compacting concrete. J Building Eng 41:102781
BH AR, Babu DV (2015) Experimental investigation on usage of grey water in concrete production
Bouaich FZ, Maherzi W, El-hajjaji F, Abriak N-E, Benzerzour M, Taleb M, Rais Z (2022) Reuse of treated wastewater and non-potable groundwater in the manufacture of concrete: major challenge of environmental preservation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29:146–157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15561-3
Committee A (2002) ACI 211.1–91 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete, no. 9 Unites States:120–121
Dardaei R, Dardaei S, Foroughi-Asl A (2022) The effects of using Wastewater Effluent on Efficiency, Permeability, and Mechanical properties of Self-compacting concrete. J Struct Constr Eng 8:142–157
EN B (2002) Mixing water for concrete: specification for sampling, testing and assessing the suitability of water, including water recovered from processes in the concrete industry, as mixing water for concrete. British Standards Institution, Her Majesty Stationery Office, London, United Kingdom
Esmaeili N, Heidarzadeh N (2022) A feasibility study on production of concrete blocks using treated municipal solid waste leachate. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29:37399–37410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-17403-8
Esmaeili-Vardanjani M, Rasa I, Amiri V, Yazdi M, Pazand K (2015) Evaluation of groundwater quality and assessment of scaling potential and corrosiveness of water samples in Kadkan aquifer, Khorasan-e-Razavi Province, Iran. Environ Monit Assess 187:1–18
Faghih Nasiri E, Qaderi F, Rahmaninezhad SM (2023) Modification of Expansive Clay Behavior by using of the Filtration Effluent of the Water Treatment Plant. Iran J Sci Technol Trans Civil Eng 47:3763–3771. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40996-023-01229-0
Ismail ZZ, Al-Hashmi EA (2011) Assessing the recycling potential of industrial wastewater to replace fresh water in concrete mixes: application of polyvinyl acetate resin wastewater. J Clean Prod 19:197–203
Koop SH, van Leeuwen CJ (2017) The challenges of water, waste and climate change in cities. Environ Dev Sustain 19:385–418
Kumar H, Saini V, Kumar D, Chaudhary R (2009) Influence of trisodium phosphate (TSP) antiscalant on the corrosion of carbon steel in cooling water systems
Langelier WF (1936) The analytical control of anti-corrosion water treatment. J (American Water Works Association) 28:1500–1521
Larson TE, Skold RV (1958) Laboratory studies relating mineral quality of water to corrosion of steel and cast iron. Corrosion 14:43–46
Liu X et al (2024) A critical review on the interaction between calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and different ions. Constr Build Mater 413:134931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.134931
Mahasneh BZ (2014) Assessment of replacing wastewater and treated water with tap water in making concrete mix. Electron J Geotech Eng 19:2379–2386
Meena K, Luhar S (2019) Effect of wastewater on properties of concrete. J Building Eng 21:106–112
Mohe NS, Shewalul YW, Agon EC (2022) Experimental investigation on mechanical properties of concrete using different sources of water for mixing and curing concrete. Case Stud Constr Mater 16:e00959
Noruzman AH, Muhammad B, Ismail M, Abdul-Majid Z (2012) Characteristics of treated effluents and their potential applications for producing concrete. J Environ Manage 110:27–32
Ooi SL, Salim MR, Ismail M, Ali MI (2001) Treated effluent in concrete technology Jurnal teknologi:1â€10–11â€10
Rao PRM, Moinuddin S, Jagadeesh P (2014) Effect of treated waste water on the properties of hardened concrete. Int J Chem Sci 12:155–162
Ravikumar P, Somashekar R (2012) Assessment and modelling of groundwater quality data and evaluation of their corrosiveness and scaling potential using environmetric methods in Bangalore South Taluk, Karnataka State, India. Water Resour 39:446–473
Rivera-Corral J, Fajardo G, Arliguie G, Orozco-Cruz R, Deby F, Valdez P (2017) Corrosion behavior of steel reinforcement bars embedded in concrete exposed to chlorides: Effect of surface finish. Constr Build Mater 147:815–826
Ryznar JW (1944) A new index for determining amount of calcium carbonate scale formed by a water. Journal-American Water Works Association 36:472–483
Saricimen H, Shameem M, Barry M, Ibrahim M (2008) Testing of treated effluent for use in mixing and curing of concrete e-printshttps://eprints kfupm edu sa/1745/>(Sep 21, 2009)
Shekarchi M, Yazdian M, Mehrdadi N (2012) Use of biologically treated domestic waste water in concrete. Kuwait J Sci Eng 39:97–111
Terro M, Al-Ghusain I (2003) Mechanical properties of concrete made with treated wastewater at ambient and elevated temperatures. Kuwait J Sci Eng 30:229–244
Weerasooriya R, Liyanage L, Rathnappriya R, Bandara W, Perera T, Gunarathna M, Jayasinghe G (2021) Industrial water conservation by water footprint and sustainable development goals: a review. Environment, Development and Sustainability, pp 1–49
**a Y, Liu M, Zhao Y, Chi X, Lu Z, Tang K, Guo J (2023) Utilization of sewage sludge ash in ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC): microstructure and life-cycle assessment. J Environ Manage 326:116690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116690
Funding
This study was funded by Regional Water Company of Tehran.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
M.T.K conceived and designed the method analysis described in this work and wrote and edited the manuscript. A.F performed material preparation and data collection. V. A. contributed to writing and review the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
This manuscript is only submitted to this journal. We declare that we have no human participants, human data, or human tissues.
Consent to Participate
All the authors listed consent to participate.
Consent for Publication
Authors consent to publish this work.
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Torabi-Kaveh, M., Falah, A. & Amiri, V. Investigating the Technical Suitability of Gray Water in Concrete Production Based on Physical and Mechanical Properties. Iran J Sci Technol Trans Civ Eng (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40996-024-01550-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40996-024-01550-2