SpringerLink
Log in

Low Motor Competence or Developmental Coordination Disorder? An Overview and Framework to Understand Motor Difficulties in Children

  • Published:
Current Developmental Disorders Reports Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose of review

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a condition defined by poor motor proficiency in children in the absence of neurological conditions or other diseases. This review provides an overview of low motor competence (LMC) and DCD in children and a framework to understand the differences and similarities between LMC and DCD.

Recent Findings

While the prevalence of DCD is fairly high (up to 5–6% of school-age children), research in the last few decades has documented a significant level of low motor competence (LMC) in the school-age children (~ 30–77%). These numbers represent an epidemic of poor motor skills that need proper assessment, intervention, and sometimes a referral for an investigation of a potential DCD diagnosis.

Summary

Low motor competence is typically established after a one-time measurement of motor skills using a standardized assessment. DCD, on the other hand, is a chronic condition—that is, it persists from childhood, through adolescence, and into adulthood.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability

Not applicable.

References

Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance

  1. Robinson L, Stodden D, Barnett L, Lopes V, Logan S, Rodrigues L, et al. Motor competence and its effect on positive developmental trajectories of health. Sports Med. 2015;45(9):1273–84.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Gasser-Haas O, Sticca F, Wustmann Seiler C. Poor motor performance – do peers matter? examining the role of peer relations in the context of the environmental stress hypothesis. Front Psychol. 2020;2020(11):498.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Logan SW, Barnett LM, Goodway JD, Stodden DF. Comparison of performance on process- and product-oriented assessments of fundamental motor skills across childhood. J Sports Sci. 2017;35(7):634–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Hardy L, King L, Farrell L, Macniven R, Howlett S. Fundamental movement skills among Australian preschool children. J Sci Med Sport. 2010;13(5):503–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Cattuzzo MT, Henrique RS, Ré AHN, Oliveira IS, Melo BM, Moura MS, Araujo RC. Stodden DF 2016 Motor competence and health related physical fitness in youth: a systematic review. J Sci Med Sport. 2016;19(2):123–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Okely AD, Booth ML, Chey T. Relationships between body composition and fundamental movement skills among children and adolescents. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2004;75(3):238–47.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. American Psychiatric Association 2013Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders5 Author Washington, DC

  8. Polatajko H, Fox M, Missiuna C. An international consensus on children with developmental coordination disorder. Can J Occup Ther. 1995;62(1):3–6.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Missiuna C, Moll S, King S, King G, Law M. A trajectory of troubles: parents’ impressions of the impact of developmental coordination disorder. Phys Occup Ther Pediatr. 2007;27:81–101.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Caçola P. Physical and mental health of children with developmental coordination disorder. Front Public Health. 2016;4:224.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Missiuna C, Moll S, King G, Stewart D, Macdonald K. Life experiences of young adults who have coordination difficulties. Can J Occup Ther. 2008;75:157–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/000841740807500307.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Lingam R, Jongmans MJ, Ellis M, Hunt LP, Golding J, Emond A. Mental health difficulties in children with developmental coordination disorder. Pediatr. 2012;129:e882–91.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Missiuna C, Cairney J, Pollock N, Campbell W, Russell DJ, Macdonald K, et al. Psychological distress in children with developmental coordination disorder and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Res Dev Disabil. 2014;35:1198–207.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Rivilis I, Hay J, Cairney J, Klentrou P, Liu J, Faught BE. Physical activity and fitness in children with developmental coordination disorder: a systematic review. Res Dev Disabil. 2011;32:894–910.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Hendrix CG, Prins MR, Dekkers H. Developmental coordination disorder and overweight and obesity in children: a systematic review. Obes Rev. 2014;15(5):408–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Stodden D, Goodway J, Langendorfer S, Roberton M, Rudisill M, Garcia C, et al. A developmental perspective on the role of motor skill competence in physical activity: an emergent relationship. Quest. 2008;60(2):290–306.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Clark JE, Metcalfe JS The mountain of motor development: A metaphor. In JE Clark & J Humphrey (Eds.), Motor development: research and reviews, 2002;2:163–190. NASPE Publications: Reston, VA

  18. De Meester A, Stodden D, Goodway J, True L, Brian A, Ferkel R, Haerens L. Identifying a motor proficiency barrier for meeting physical activity guidelines in children. J Sci Med Sport. 2018;21(1):58–62. (This paper suggests evidence for the existence of the (motor) proficiency barrier for meeting MVPA guidelines.)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Goodway JD, Robinson LE, Crowe H. Gender differences in fundamental motor skill development in disadvantaged preschoolers from two geographical regions. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2010;81:17–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Pope ML, Liu T, Getchell N. Object-control skills in Hispanic preschool children enrolled in Head Start. Percept Mot Skills. 2011;112:193–200.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Hamilton M, Liu T. The effects of an intervention on the gross and fine motor skills of Hispanic pre-k children from low SES backgrounds. Early Childhood Educ J. 2018;46:223–30.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Ghosh S, Ghosh T, Chowdhury SD, Wrotniak BH, Chandra AM. Factors associated with the development of motor proficiency in school children of Kolkata: a cross-sectional study to assess the role of chronic nutritional and socio-economic status. Dev Psychobiol. 2016;58(6):734–44.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Ferreira L, Godinez I, Gabbard C, Vieira JL, Caçola P. Motor development in school-age children is associated with the home environment including socioeconomic status. Child Care Health Dev. 2018;44(6):801–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Robinson LE, Webster EK, Logan SW, et al. Teaching practices that promote motor skills in early childhood settings. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2012;83:20–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Lopes VP, Maia JA, Rodrigues LP, Malina RM. Motor coordination, physical activity and fitness as predictors of longitudinal change in adiposity during childhood. Eur J Sport Sci. 2011;12:384–91.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Barnett LM, Van Beurden E, Morgan PJ, et al. Does childhood motor skill proficiency predict adolescent fitness?. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40:2137–44.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Brian A, Pennell A, Taunton S, Starrett A, Howard-Shaughnessy C, Goodway JD, Wadsworth D, Rudisill M, Stodden D. Motor competence levels and developmental delay in early childhood: a multicenter cross-sectional study conducted in the USA. Sports Med. 2019;49:1609–18 (This paper suggests that children in the USA may be demonstrating a dramatic secular decline in gross motor development.)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Hardy LL, Reinten-Reynolds T, Espinel P, Zask A, Okely AD. Prevalence and correlates of low fundamental movement skill competency in children. Pediatr. 2012;130(2):e390–8.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Queiroz DR, Ré AHN, Henrique RS, Moura MS, Cattuzzo MT. Participation in sports practice and motor competence in preschoolers. Motriz. 2014;20(1):26–32.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Brown-Lum M, Zwicker JG. Brain imaging increases our understanding of developmental coordination disorder: a review of literature and future directions. Curr Dev Disord Rep. 2015;2:131–40.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Gibbs J, Appleton J, Appleton R. Dyspraxia or developmental coordination disorder? Unravelling the enigma. Arch Dis Child. 2007;92:534–9.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Caçola P, Getchell N, Srinivasan D, Alexandrakis G, Liu H. Cortical activity in fine-motor tasks in children with developmental coordination disorder: a preliminary fNIRS study. Int J Dev Neurosci. 2018;65:83–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Geuze RH. Postural control in children with developmental coordination disorder. Neural Plast. 2005;12(2–3):183–96.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Blank R, et al. International clinical practice recommendations on the definition, diagnosis, assessment, intervention, and psychosocial aspects of developmental coordination disorder. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2019;61:242–85.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Henderson SE Sugden DA Barnett AL Movement assessment battery for children 2nd London, UK: Harcourt Assessment, 2007

  36. Wilson BN, Crawford SG, Green D, Roberts G, Aylott A, Kaplan BJ. Psychometric properties of the revised developmental coordination disorder questionnaire. Phys Occup Ther Pediat. 2009;29:182–202.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Wilson BN, Creighton D, Crawford SG, et al. Psychometric properties of the Canadian little developmental coordination disorder questionnaire for preschool children. Phys Occup Ther Pediat. 2015;35:116–31.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Ip A, Mickelson ECR, Zwicker JG. Assessment, diagnosis, and management of developmental coordination disorder. Paediatr Child Health. 2021;26(6):375–8.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Wilson PH, Smits-Engelsman BC, Caeyenberghs K, et al. Cognitive and neuroimaging findings in developmental coordination disorder: new insights from a systematic review of recent research. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2017;59:1117–29.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Missiuna C, Moll S, King G, Stewart D, Macdonald K. (2008) Life experiences of young adults who have coordination difficulties. Can J Occup Ther. 2008;75(3):157–66.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Lingam R, Golding J, Jongmans MJ, Hunt LP, Ellis M, Emond A. The association between developmental coordination disorder and other developmental traits. Pediatr. 2010;126(5):e1109–18.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Licari MK, Alvares GA, Varcin K, Evans KL, Cleary D, Reid SL, et al. Prevalence of motor difficulties in autism spectrum disorder: analysis of a population-based cohort. Autism Res. 2020;13:298–306.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Miller H, Sherrod G, Mauk J, Fears N, Tamplain P. Shared features or co-occurrence? Evaluating symptoms of developmental coordination disorder in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2021;51(10):3443–55.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Kadesjö B, Gillberg C. Attention deficits and clumsiness in Swedish 7-year-old children. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1998;40:796–804.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Kaiser M-L, Schoemaker MM, Albaret J-M, Geuze RH. What is the evidence of impaired motor skills and motor control among children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? Systematic review of the literature. Res Dev Disabil. 2015;36:338–57.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Iuzzini-Seigel J, Moorer L, Tamplain P. An investigation of developmental coordination disorder (DCD) characteristics in children with childhood apraxia of speech (CAS). Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch. 2022;53(4):1006–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Flapper BC, Schoemaker MM. Developmental coordination disorder in children with specific language impairment: comorbidity and impact on quality of life. Res Dev Disabil. 2013;34(2):756–63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Visscher C, Houwen S, Moolenaar B, Lyons J, Scherder EJA, Hartman E. Motor proficiency of 6- to 9-year-old children with speech and language problems. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2010;52:e254–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Polatajko HJ Developmental coordination disorder (DCD): alias the clumsy child syndrome In: Whitmore K, Hart H, Willems G, editors. A neurodevelopmental approach to specific learning disorders. Clin Dev Med, 145. London: MacKeith Press; 1999;119e33

  50. Pimenta RP, Fuchs C, Fears NE, Mariano M, Tamplain P. Distinct mental health profiles in children with developmental coordination disorder: a latent class analysis and associations. Res Dev Disabil. 2023;132:104377.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Licari M, Alvares GA, Bernie C, Elliott C, Evans KL, McIntyre S, Pillar SV, Reynolds JE, Reid SL, Spittle AJ, Whitehouse AJO, Zwicker JG, Williams J. The unmet clinical needs of children with developmental coordination disorder. Pediatr Res. 2021;90:826–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Tamplain P, Miller HL, Peavy D, Cermak S, Williams J, Licari M The Impact for DCD – USA study: the current state of developmental coordination disorder (DCD) in the United States of America. Res Dev Disabil. 2023; under review. (These findings highlight the present status of DCD in the USA by presenting evidence in five areas of concern associated with the disorder.)

  53. Duncan MJ, Foweather L, Bardid F, Barnett AL, Rudd J, O’Brien W, Foulkes JD, Roscoe C, Issartel J, Stratton G, Clark CCT. Motor competence among children in the United Kingdom and Ireland: an expert statement on behalf of the international motor development research consortium. J Mot Learn Dev. 2022;10(1):7–26.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Palmer KK, Chinn KM, Robinson LE. Using achievement goal theory in motor skill instruction: a systematic review. Sports Med. 2017;47:2569–83.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Logan S, Robinson L, Wilson A, Lucas W. Getting the fundamentals of movement: a meta-analysis of the effectiveness of motor skill interventions in children. Child Care Health Dev. 2012;38(3):305–15.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Smits-Engelsman B, Vinçon S, Blank R, Quadrado VH, Polatajko H, Wilson PH. Evaluating the evidence for motor-based interventions in developmental coordination disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Res Dev Disabil. 2018;74:72–102.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Izadi-Najafabadi S, Gunton C, Dureno Z, Zwicker JG. Effectiveness of Cognitive Orientation to Occupational Performance intervention in improving motor skills of children with developmental coordination disorder: a randomized waitlist-control trial. Clin Rehabil. 2022;36(6):776–88.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Bardid F, Deconinck FJA, Descamps S, Veerhoeven L, De Pooter G, Lenoir M, D’Hondt E. The effectiveness of a fundamental motor skill intervention in preschoolers with motor problems depends on gender but not environmental context. Res Dev Disabil. 2013;34:4571–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Gosselin V, Leone M, Laberge S. Socioeconomic and gender-based disparities in the motor competence of school-age children. J Sports Sci. 2021;39:341–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Zwicker JG, Missiuna C, Harris SR, Boyd LA. Developmental coordination disorder: a review and update. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2012;16:573–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Lee EJ, Zwicker JG. Early identification of children with/at risk of developmental coordination disorder: a sco** review. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2021;63(6):649–58.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Zwicker JG, Lee EJ. Early intervention for children with/at risk of developmental coordination disorder: a sco** review. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2021;63(6):659–67.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Kinesiology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, USA

    Priscila Tamplain

  2. School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, and the Health and Well-Being Centre for Research Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

    John Cairney

Authors
  1. Priscila Tamplain
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. John Cairney
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

P.T. and J.C. conceived the idea and wrote the main manuscript text. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Priscila Tamplain.

Ethics declarations

Ethical Approval

This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.

Competing Interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Tamplain, P., Cairney, J. Low Motor Competence or Developmental Coordination Disorder? An Overview and Framework to Understand Motor Difficulties in Children. Curr Dev Disord Rep 11, 1–7 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40474-024-00294-y

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40474-024-00294-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation