Abstract
The growing demand for alternative energy sources has driven significant developments in novel device designs that generate energy through light conversion. Among the different types of solar cells, dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) have emerged as one of the most promising options due to their potential to approach theoretical efficiencies of up to 46%. Although current real-world efficiencies typically range from 10 to 14% that generates numerous opportunity areas for DSSC improvement through different strategies, including the development of innovative solar cell structures, new growth or synthesis processes, and the integration of novel oxide materials. Titanium dioxide is one of the most significant oxide semiconductors and its interest has notably increased in recent years due to its unique optoelectronic properties and its applications in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). In DSSCs, photoelectrodes play a vital role in photoconversion. Photoelectrodes for DSSCs require blocking and porous oxide semiconductor layers to prevent electron leakage and enhance efficiency. Typically, these layers are produced through various techniques and steps, complicating the fabrication process and extending processing times. Therefore, in this work, we propose a one-step method to simultaneously grow TiO2-blocking and porous layers for DSSC photoelectrodes at relatively low temperatures. Characterization results using FESEM/EDS, XRD, and UV–visible spectroscopy confirm the growth of both compact and porous layers. These layers are composed of the anatase particulate deposits (100–200 nm) with acceptable grain sizes (17.3–84.1 nm) and exhibit a suitable band gap (3.14 eV). Finally, TiO2 films were applied in DSSCs as photoelectrodes and showed promising performance in solar cell prototypes.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13204-024-03050-1/MediaObjects/13204_2024_3050_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13204-024-03050-1/MediaObjects/13204_2024_3050_Fig2_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13204-024-03050-1/MediaObjects/13204_2024_3050_Fig3_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13204-024-03050-1/MediaObjects/13204_2024_3050_Fig4_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13204-024-03050-1/MediaObjects/13204_2024_3050_Fig5_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13204-024-03050-1/MediaObjects/13204_2024_3050_Fig6_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13204-024-03050-1/MediaObjects/13204_2024_3050_Fig7_HTML.png)
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
It is not applicable.
References
Al-Attafi K, Dwech MH, Mezher HA, Nattestad A, Kim JH (2023) Coatings 13(1):121
Badr MH, El-Kemary M, Ali FA, Ghazy R (2018) J Chin Chem Soc 66(5):459
Biswas S, Kim H (2020) Polymers 12(6):1338
Burke A, Ito S, Snaith H, Bach U, Kwiatkowski J, Grätzel M (2008) Nano Lett 8(4):977
Callister WD Jr, Rethwisch DG (2018) Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction. John Wiley & Sons Inc., Hoboken, pp 305–312
Chandiran AK, Abdi-jalebi M, Nazeeruddin MK, Grätzel M (2014) ACS Nano 8(3):2261
Haridas R, Velore J, Pradhan SC, Vindhyasarumi A, Yoosaf K, Soman S, Unni KNN, Ajayaghosh A (2021) Mater Adv 2(23):7773
Hossain MK, Mortuza AA, Sen SK, Basher MK, Ashraf MW, Tayyaba S, Mia MNH, Uddin MJ (2018) Optik-Int. J. Light Electron Optics 171:507
Inamuddin, Ahamed MI, Boddula R, Razakazemi M (2021) Fundamentals of Solar Cell Design. John Wiley & Sons Inc, Hoboken, pp 146–147
Jang K, Hong E, Kim JH (2012) Korean J Chem Eng 29(3):356
Kumar D (2021) Eng Res Express 3(4):21
Li L, Xu C, Zhao Y, Chen S, Ziegler KJ, Appl ACS (2015) Mater Interfaces 7(23):12824
Michaels H, Freitag M, Appl ACS (2022) Energy Mater 5(2):1933
Milan R, Selopal GS, Cavazzini M, Orlandi S, Boaretto R, Caramori S, Concina I, Pozzy G (2020) Sci Rep 10(1):1176
O’Regan B, Grätzel M (1991) Nature 353(6346):737
A. Pandikumar, K. Jothivenkatachalam, K. B. Bhojanaa, “Interfacial Engineering in Functional Materials for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, pp. 107–121 and pp. 79–99 (2020)
Roose B, Pathak S, Steiner U (2015) Chem Soc Rev 44:8326
R.K. Roy, “A Primer on the Taguchi Method”, Society of Manufacturing Engineering, Dearborn, pp. 5–22 and pp. 261 (2010)
Tiwana P, Docampo P, Johnston MB, Snaith HJ, Herz LM (2011) ACS Nano 5(6):5158
Venkatachalam P, Anandalakshmi K (2020) Opt Mater 109(5):110335
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge Programa para el Desarrollo Profesional Docente (PRODEP) for financial support under contract DSA/103.5/16/10231. A. Espinoza-Duarte expresses his gratitude to Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) for granting a scholarship CVU No. 787706.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
Authors declare that they do not have conflict of interest.
Ethical standards
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Informed consent
In this article, no patient care was involved.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Duarte, A.I.E., Cruz, A.L.L., Marquina, A.V. et al. One-step method to simultaneously grow TiO2 compact and porous layers for DSSC photoelectrodes. Appl Nanosci 14, 819–826 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-024-03050-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-024-03050-1