Abstract
The coexistence of the weak interlayer and groundwater could give rise to an undesirable geological condition, resulting in seepage-induced hazards, particularly in grotto relics. Seepage-related characteristics of a weak interlayer affected by physically-chemically mediated erosion in grotto relics were investigated. As confirmed by the morphological features, nano-indentation experiments and Raman spectroscopy analysis, the weak interlayer exhibited characteristics of disintegrability in water and low mechanical strength. The average total content of clay minerals significantly increased from 25.2 to 28.5%, compared to the pre-experimental X-ray diffraction data, despite its non-uniformity, indicating a trend toward argillization. Based on mineralogical composition, hydro-chemical data and three-dimensional morphology before and after the experiment, the changes induced by physically-chemically mediated erosion were highlighted. A coherent explanation of the permeability evolution is that the physically-chemically mediated erosion leads to the formation of fracture channel in weak interlayer under long-term water erosion and hydraulic scouring. The permeability enhanced from of 10–7–10−8 cm/s at the initial stage to 8.01–10−4 cm/s at the existence of fracture channel.
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Assouline S, Or D (2013) Conceptual and parametric representation of soil hydraulic properties: a review. Vadose Zone J 12(4):vzj2013.2007.0121. https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2013.07.0121
Berger G, Lacharpagne JC, Velde B, Beaufort D, Lanson B (1997) Kinetic constraints on illitization reactions and the effects of organic diagenesis in sandstone/shale sequences. Appl Geochem 12(1):23–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-2927(96)00051-0
Blaisonneau A, Peter-Borie M, Gentier S (2016) Evolution of fracture permeability with respect to fluid/rock interactions under thermohydromechanical conditions: development of experimental reactive percolation tests. Geotherm Energy 4(1):3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40517-016-0045-9
Bourg IC, Ajo-Franklin JB (2017) Clay, water, and salt: controls on the permeability of fine-grained sedimentary rocks. Acc Chem Res 50(9):2067–2074. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.7b00261
Chen JY, Huang HW, Zhou ML, Chaiyasarn K (2021) Towards semi-automatic discontinuity characterization in rock tunnel faces using 3D point clouds. Eng Geol 291(2):106232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106232
Detwiler RL (2008) Experimental observations of deformation caused by mineral dissolution in variable-aperture fractures. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 113(B8):B08202. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008jb005697
Detwiler RL, Rajaram H (2007) Predicting dissolution patterns in variable aperture fractures: evaluation of an enhanced depth-averaged computational model. Water Resour Res 43(4):W04403. https://doi.org/10.1029/2006wr005147
Dong ML, Zhang FM, Hu MJ, Liu C (2020) Study on the influence of anchorage angle on the anchorage effect of soft-hard interbedded toppling deformed rock mass. KSCE J Civ Eng 24(3):2382–2392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-020-2386-y
Gao M, Gao H, Zhao Q, Chang Z, Miao C (2022) Study on stability of anchored slope under static load with weak interlayer. Sustainability 14(17):10542. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710542
Garcia C S, Nurul Abedin M, Sharma S K, Misra A K, Ismail S, Sandford S P, Elsayed-Ali H (2007) Remote raman sensor system for testing of rocks and minerals. In: Conference on sensors, and command, control, communications, and intelligence (c3i) technologies for homeland security and homeland defense VI
Gu DM, Huang D (2016) A complex rock topple-rock slide failure of an anaclinal rock slope in the Wu Gorge, Yangtze River, China. Eng Geol 208:165–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2016.04.037
Hu J, Wen H, **e Q, Li B, Mo Q (2019) Effects of seepage and weak interlayer on the failure modes of surrounding rock: model tests and numerical analysis. R Soc Open Sci 6(9):190790. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.190790
Huang N, Liu R, Jiang Y (2017) Numerical study of the geometrical and hydraulic characteristics of 3D self-affine rough fractures during shear. J Nat Gas Sci Eng 45:127–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jngse.2017.05.018
Jian WX, Yin KL, Ma CQ, Liu LL, Chao Z (2005) Characteristics of incompetent beds in Jurassic red clastic rocks in Wanzhou. Rock Soil Mech 26(6):901–905. https://doi.org/10.16285/j.rsm.2005.06.016
** CY, Liu D, Shao AL, Zhao X, Yang L, Fan FQ, Yu KP, Lin RB, Huang JZ, Ding CG (2018) Study on healing technique for weak interlayer and related mechanical properties based on microbially-induced calcium carbonate precipitation. PLoS ONE 13(9):e0203834. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203834
Kalia N, Balakotaiah V (2009) Effect of medium heterogeneities on reactive dissolution of carbonates. Chem Eng Sci 64(2):376–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2008.10.026
Korsakov AV, Zhukov VP, Vandenabeele P (2010) Raman-based geobarometry of ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks: applications, problems, and perspectives. Anal Bioanal Chem 397(7):2739–2752. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-010-3831-4
Lee CH (1990) Flow in fractured rock. University of Arizona, Tucson
Li J, Zhang B, Sui B (2021) Stability analysis of rock slope with multilayer weak interlayer. Adv Civ Eng 2021:1409240. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/1409240
Liu S, Chen A, Shen Z, Lv Z, Zhang X (2018) Fluid–rock interaction and dissolution of feldspar in the Upper Triassic Xujiahe tight sandstone, western Sichuan Basin, China. Open Geosci 10(1):234–249. https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2018-0018
Louis C (1972) Rock hydraulics. Springer, Vienna. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-4109-0_16
Lu K, Li ZY, Niu RQ, Li F, Pan JW, Li KT, Chen L (2020) Using surface nuclear magnetic resonance and spontaneous potential to investigate the source of water seepage in the **Deng Temple grottoes, China. J Cult Herit 45:142–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2020.05.006
Luo XY, Cao P, Liu TY, Zhao QX, Meng G, Fan Z, **e WP (2022) Mechanical behaviour of anchored rock containing weak interlayer under uniaxial compression: laboratory test and coupled DEM–FEM simulation. Minerals 12(4):492. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12040492
McGuire TP, Elsworth D, Karcz Z (2013) Experimental measurements of stress and chemical controls on the evolution of fracture permeability. Transp Porous Media 98(1):15–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-013-0123-4
Murphy AE, Jakubek RS, Steele A, Fries MD, Glamoclija M (2021) Raman spectroscopy provides insight into carbonate rock fabric based on calcite and dolomite crystal orientation. J Raman Spectrosc 52(6):1155–1166. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.6097
Nan SL, Guan WM, Hu T, Shi WS, Zhang JH, Chen H, Cong JY, Liu HB (2021) The influence mechanism of the master weak interlayer on bench blasting effect and its evaluation method. Shock Vib 2021:7814954. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/7814954
Oliver WC, Pharr GM (1992) An improved technique for determining hardness and elastic modulus using load and displacement sensing indentation. J Mater Res 7:1564–1583. https://doi.org/10.1557/JMR.1992.1564
Oliver WC, Pharr GM (2004) Measurement of hardness and elastic modulus by instrumented indentation: advances in understanding and refinements to methodology. J Mater Res 19(1):3–20. https://doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2004.19.1.3
Peng H, Lv M, Wang J (1991) Hydrogeochemical action in the process of sandwich argillization. J Hohai Univ 19(1):73–78 (in Chinese)
Polak A, Elsworth D, Yasuhara H, Grader AS, Halleck PM (2003) Permeability reduction of a natural fracture under net dissolution by hydrothermal fluids. Geophys Res Lett 30(20):2020. https://doi.org/10.1029/2003gl017575
Prinsloo LC, Tournié A, Colomban P, Paris C, Bassett ST (2013) In search of the optimum Raman/IR signatures of potential ingredients used in San/Bushman rock art paint. J Archaeol Sci 40(7):2981–2990. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.02.010
Revil A, Cathles LM (1999) Permeability of shaly sands. Water Resour Res 35(3):651–662. https://doi.org/10.1029/98WR02700
Saxena N, Mavko G, Hofmann R, Srisutthiyakorn N (2017) Estimating permeability from thin sections without reconstruction: digital rock study of 3D properties from 2D images. Comput Geosci 102:79–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2017.02.014
Shainberg I (1984) Response of soils to sodic and saline conditions. Hilgardia 52(2):1–60. https://doi.org/10.3733/HILG.V52N02P057
Shang J, West LJ, Hencher SR, Zhao Z (2018) Geological discontinuity persistence: Implications and quantification. Eng Geol 241:41–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.05.010
Shi J, Zhang J, Zhang C, Jiang T, Huang G (2021) Experimental investigation of permeability evolution on sandstone in triaxial and long-term dissolution experiment. Geofluids 2021:5580185. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5580185
Sing KSW (1985) Reporting physisorption data for gas/solid systems with special reference to the determination of surface area and porosity. Pure Appl Chem 57(4):603–619. https://doi.org/10.1351/pac198557040603
Su BY, Zhan ML, Zhang ZT (1994) Experimental research of seepage characteristic for filled fracture. Rock Soil Mech 15(4):46–52 (in Chinese)
Su MX, Ma XY, Xue YG, Cheng K, Wang P, Liu YM, Yang F (2023) Application of the small fixed-loop transient electromagnetic method in detecting grottoes seepage channel. Environ Earth Sci 82(1):45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-022-10739-5
Sun S, Wang W, Wei J, Song J, Yu Y, He W, Zhang J (2022) Experimental study on microstructure response and mechanical properties of weak interlayer in acidic environment. Nat Hazards 112(1):327–348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-05183-w
Sun B, Ma FY, Zhang H, Peng NB, Zhang P (2023) Carbon quantum dots as a tracer of water seepage sources and pathways in grottoes. Herit Sci 11(1):211. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-023-01058-4
Tse R (1979) Estimating joint roughness coefficients. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 16(5):303–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-9062(79)90241-9
Wang YL (1980) Physicochemical investigation of genesis and properties of argillated interlayer in Gezhouba, China. Hydrol Eng Geol 04:5–11. https://doi.org/10.16030/j.cnki.issn.1000-3665
Wang JX (2023) Visualizing water seepage dynamics in grotto relics via atom-based representative model. Herit Sci 11(1):5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-022-00832-0
Wei E, Hu B, Tian K, Cen P, Zhang Z, Wang Z, Chang S, Cui X (2022) Study on the nonlinear damage creep model of the weak interlayer. Adv Civ Eng 2022:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3566521
Yasuhara H, Polak A, Mitani Y, Grader A, Halleck P, Elsworth D (2006) Evolution of fracture permeability through fluid–rock reaction under hydrothermal conditions. Earth Planet Sci Lett 244(1–2):186–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2006.01.046
Ye HX, Dong M, Dong HZ (2011) Mechanism research on concentrated leakage passage formed by water flow erosion in weak structure plane. J Disaster Prev Mitig Eng 31(2):173–179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-09271-w
Ye F, Duan JC, Fu WX, Yuan XY (2019) Permeability properties of jointed rock with periodic partially filled fractures. Geofluids 2019:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/4039024
Yu BM, Li JH (2004) A geometry model for tortuosity of flow path in porous media. Chin Phys Lett 21:1569–1571. https://doi.org/10.1088/0256-307X/21/8/044
Zhang JS, Yang H, Ye X, Wang SL (2023) Water-rock(soil) chemical reaction during formation process of weak interlayers in red bedded accumulation. Yangtze River 54(12):142–146 (in Chinese)
Zhou Z, Zhang J, Cai X, Wang S, Du X, Zang H (2020) Permeability experiment of fractured rock with rough surfaces under different stress conditions. Geofluids 2020:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/9030484
Zhu CL, Lei XZ, Fu WX, Ye F (2019) Research on water depth of weak interlayer containing continuous cracks suffering from hydraulic erosion. China Rural Water Hydropower 2:139–154 (in Chinese)
Zhu CL, Lei XZ, Ye F, Fu WX (2020a) Contact scouring mechanism of seepage in weak interlayers. China Rural Water Hydropower 1:176–180 (in Chinese)
Zhu X, Liu G, Gao F, Ye D, Luo J, Liu R (2020b) A complex network model for analysis of fractured rock permeability. Adv Civ Eng 2020:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8824082
Acknowledgements
The research was supported by National Key RD Program of China (2021YFC1523400) and the science and technology project for cultural relic conservation of Shanxi culture relics bureau (208141400237).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
JX Wang participated in the design of the study, carried out all the analyses and drafted the manuscript. The author read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, J. Seepage-related characteristics of weak interlayer suffering from a physically-chemically mediated erosion in grotto relics. Environ Earth Sci 83, 438 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-024-11749-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-024-11749-1