SpringerLink
Log in

Role of flexural-slip folding-induced stratabound fractures in controlling Cu mineralization at the Chizeh deposit, Tarom metallogenic zone, NW Iran

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Arabian Journal of Geosciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

At the Chizeh copper deposit, high concentrations of visible copper are hosted in shaley tuffite of the Eocene Karaj Formation at the southwest-dip** limb of the Tarom anticline. The 20–25-m thick layer is characterized by conjugate stratabound fractures indicating structural controls of mineral precipitation. The anticline was formed during the Alborz orogeny phase. It has multiple fractures with NW–SE, N-S, NE-SW, and E-W trends, which have been formed during multiple tectonic phases. Here, we distinguish the role of fractures in mineralization of the Chizeh area by investigating the deposit-scale structural framework using a combination of mesoscopic, microscopic, and statistical analyses. Mesoscopic and microscopic structural analyses, including measurement of the orientations of fractures, veins, and veinlets, indicate that the vein minerals were subject to a vertical least principal stress (σ3) and a horizontal maximum principal stress (σ1) normal to the strike of bedding. It is consistent with the sub-horizontal σ1 inferred from the regional stress field associated with N-S shortening. Statistical analyses show that the fractures at fold limbs are more developed in the incompetent units such as shaley tuffite than in the other layers such as porphyritic-andesite and dacitic-andesitic volcanic tuff during the folding. These stratabound fractures are therefore interpreted to have been preferential fluid flux conduits in the Chizeh deposit site. This new structural analysis for the Chizeh deposit highlights that fluid flow and hydrothermal mineralization are strongly controlled by flexural-slip folding-induced stratabound fractures.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Afshar NS, Rahimi A, Rezaeian M, Nabaei T (2020) Folding mechanism investigation of the Tarom Metallogenic Zone based on fracture patterns, NW Qazvin. Tectonics Journal 4:1–20 (in Persian)

    Google Scholar 

  • Ali KHG (2013) Structural control of El Sela granites and associated uranium deposits, Southern Eastern Desert. Egypt Arabian J Geosci 6:1753–1767

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Kindi MH (2020) Understanding the relationship between large-scale fold structures and small-scale fracture patterns: a case study from the Oman Mountains. Geosciences 10:1–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Asiabanha A, Foden J (2012) Post-collisional transition from an extensional volcanosedimentary basin to a continental arc in the Alborz Ranges, N-Iran. Lithos 148:98–111

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baecher GB, Lanney NA (1978) Sampling for joint persistence. 19th U. S. National Symposium on Rock Mechanics

  • Balberg I, Binenbaum N (1983) Computer study of the percolation threshold in a two-dimensional anisotropic system of conducting sticks. Phys Rev B28:3799–3812

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bazarganlari A (2007) Basilar concepts of statistic and presumption. Nashre Ayeejg publication, Tehran (in Persian)

    Google Scholar 

  • Behyari M, Rahimsouri Y, Hoseinzadeh E, Kurd N (2019) Evaluating of lithological and structural controls on the barite mineralization by using the remote sensing, fry and fractal methods, Northwest Iran. Arabian J Geosci 12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-019-4298-z

  • Bellahsen N, Fiore P, Pollard DD (2006a) The role of fractures in the structural interpretation of Sheep Mountain Anticline, Wyoming. J Struct Geol 28:850–867

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bellahsen N, Fiore PE, Pollard DD (2006b) From spatial variation of fracture patterns to fold kinematics; a geomechanical approach. Geophys Res Lett 33:L02301

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergbauer S, Pollard DD (2004) A new conceptual fold-fracture model including prefolding joints, based on Emigrant Gap anticline, Wyoming. Geol Soc Am Bull 116:294–307

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Castro A, Aghazadeh M, Badrzadeh Z, Chirro M (2013) Late Eocene-Oligocene post collisional monzonitic intrusions from the Alborz magmatic belt, NW Iran. An example of monzonite magma generation from a metasomatized mantle source. Lithos 180:109–127

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chauvet A (2019) Structural Control of Ore Deposits: The role of pre-existing structures on the formation of mineralised vein systems. Minerals 9:1–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Chi G, Guha J (2011) Microstructural analysis of a subhorizontal gold-quartz vein deposit at Donalda, Abitibi greenstone belt, Canada: implications for hydrodynamic regime and fluid-structural relationship. Geosci Front 2(4):529–538

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooke ML, Simo JA, Underwood CA, Rijken P (2006) Mechanical stratigraphic controls on fracture patterns within carbonates and implications for groundwater flow. Sed Geol 184:225–239

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cosgrove JW, Ameen MS (2000) A comparison of the geometry, spatial organization and fracture patterns associated with forced folds and buckle folds. Geol Soc Spec Pub 169:7–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox SF, Etheridge MA, Cas RAF, Clifford BA (1991) Deformational style of the Castlemaine area, Bendigo-Ballarat Zone: implications for evolution of crustal structure in central Victoria. Aust J Earth Sci 38:151–170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans MA, Fischer MP (2012) On the distribution of fluids in folds: a review of controlling factors and processes. J Struct Geol 44:2–24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans MA, Bebout GE, Brown CH (2012a) Changing fluid conditions during folding: an example from the central Appalachians. Tectonophysics 1:99–115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans MA, Leo J, Burruss RC (2012b) Spatial and temporal variation of fluids in the Devonian Marcellus shale during deformation of the central Appalachian fold-and-thrust belt. In: Roure, F. (Ed.), Proceedings. Geofluids VII- International Conference, IFP Energies nouvelles, Rueil-Malmaison, France, June 6–8

  • Evans MA (2010) Temporal and spatial changes in deformation conditions during the formation of the Central Appalachian fold-and-thrust belt: evidence from joints, vein mineral paragenesis, and fluid inclusions. In: Tollo R, Bartholomew MJ, Hibbard J, Karabinos P (Eds.), From Rodinia to Pangea: The Lithotectonic Record of the Appalachian Region. Geological Society of America Memoir 206, 477–552

  • Fischer MP, Wilkerson MS (2000) Predicting the orientation of joints from fold shape: results of pseudo-three-dimensional modeling and curvature analysis. Geol Magazine 28:15–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Floreznino JM, Aydin A, Mavko G, Antonellini M, Ayaviri A (2005) Fault and fracture systems in a fold and thrust belt: an example from Bolivia. Am Asso Petrol Geol Bull 89(4):471–493

    Google Scholar 

  • Gessner K, Jones PA, Wilde AR, Kühn M (2006) Significance of strain localization and fracturing in relation to hydrothermal mineralization at Mount Isa, Australia. J Geochem Explor 89:129–132

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghorbani M (2013) The economic geology of Iran, mineral deposits and natural resources. Springer, Dordrecht New York, p 569

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Guerriero V, Iannace A, Mazzoli S, Parente M, Vitale S, Giorgioni M (2010) Quantifying uncertainties in multi-scale studies of fractured reservoir analogues: implemented statistical analysis of scan line data. J Struct Geol 32:1271–1278

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guerriero V, Mazzoli S, Iannace A, Vitale S, Carravetta A, Strauss C (2013) A permeability model for naturally fractured carbonate reservoirs. Mar Pet Geol 40:115–134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guerriero V, Dati F, Giorgioni M, Iannace A, Mazzoli S, Vitale S (2015) The role of stratabound fractures for fluid migration pathways and storage in well-bedded carbonates. Italian J Geosci 134:383–395

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guo L, Latham JP, **ang J (2017) A numerical study of fracture spacing and through-going fracture formation in layered rocks. Int J Solids Struct 110–111:44–57

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guzofski CA, Mueller JP, Shaw JH, Muron PMDA, Bilotti F, Rivero C (2009) Insights into the mechanisms of fault-related folding provided by volumetric structural restorations using spatially varying mechanical constraints. Am Asso Petrol Geol Bull 93:479–502

    Google Scholar 

  • Helgeson DE, Aydin A (1991) Characteristics of joint propagation across layer interfaces in sedimentary rocks. J Struct Geol 13:897–911

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirayama K, Samimi M, Zahedi M, Hushmandzadeh A (1966) Geology of the Tarom district, western part (Zanjan area, north-west Iran). Geol Survey Iran, Scale 1(100):000

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooker JN, Gale JFW, Gomez LA, Laubach SE, Marrett R, Reed RM (2009) Aperture-size scaling variations in a low-strain opening-mode fracture set, Cozzette Sandstone, Colorado. J Struct Geol 31:707–718

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hooker JN, Laubach SE, Marrett R (2014) A universal power-law scaling exponent for fracture apertures in sandstones. Geol Soc Am Bull 126:1340–1362

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang Q, Angelier J (1989) Fracture spacing and its relation to bed thickness. Geol Magazine 126:326–355

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khouei N., Ghorbani M, Tajbakhsh P (1999) Copper deposits in Iran. In: Geological Survey of Iran. Geological Survey of Iran, Tehran, p. 251 (in Persian)

  • Kouhestani H, Mokhtari MAA, Chang Z, Johnson AC (2018) Intermediate sulfidation type base metal mineralization at Aliabad-Khanchy, Tarom-Hasht** metallogenic belt, NW Iran. Ore Geol Rev 93:1–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lacombe O., Bellahsen N, Mouthereau F (2011) Fracture patterns in the Zagros Simply Folded Belt (Fars, Iran): constraints on early collisional tectonic history and role of basement faults. In: Lacombe O, Grasemann B, Simpson G (Eds.). Geological Magazine 148, 940–63

  • Laubach S, Diaztushman K (2009) Laurentian paleostress trajectories and ephemeral fracture permeability, Cambrian Eriboll Formation sandstones west of the Moine thrust zone, northwest Scotland. J Geol Soc London 166(2):349–362

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laubach SE (1989) Paleostress directions from the preferred orientation of closed microfractures (fluid-inclusion planes) in sandstone, East Texas basin, U.S.A. J Structural Geol 11/5, 603–11

  • Lisle RJ (2000) Predicting patterns of strain from three-dimensional fold geometries: neutral surface folds and forced folds. In: Cosgrove JW, Ameen MS (Eds.) Forced Folds and Fractures. J Geol Soc London 169:213–21

  • Nabatian G, Jiang SY, Honarmand M, Neubauer F (2016) Zircon U-Pb ages, geochemical and Sr–Nd–Pb–Hf isotopic constraints on petrogenesis of the Tarom-Olya pluton, Alborz magmatic belt, NW Iran. Lithos 244:43–58

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nabavi ST, Fossen H (2021) Fold geometry and folding – a review. Earth Sci Rev 222:1–62

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Odling NE, Gillespie P, Bourgine B, Castaing C, Chile´s JP, Watterson J (1999) Variations in fracture system geometry and their implications for fluid flow in fractured hydrocarbon reservoirs. Pet Geosci 5(4):373–384

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ougier-Simonin A, François R, Boehm C, Vidal-Gilbert S (2016) Microfracturing and microporosity in shales. Earth Sci Rev 162:198–226

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pluijm B, Marshak S (2004) Earth structure: an introduction to structural geology and tectonics. WW Norton & Company, USA, p 673

    Google Scholar 

  • Price NJ, Cosgrove JW (1990) Analysis of geological structures. Cambridge University Press, p. 520

  • Procter A, Sanderson DJ (2018) Spatial and layer-controlled variability in fracture networks. J Struct Geol 108:52–65

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramsay JG (1967) Folding and fracturing of rocks. McGraw-Hill, New York, p 568

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramsay JG, Huber MI (1987) The techniques of modern structural geology, folds and fractures. Academic Press, New York, p 695

    Google Scholar 

  • Rives T, Razack PJP, Rawnsley KD (1992) Joint spacing : analogue and numerical simulations. J Struct Geol 14:925–937

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shahbazi S, Ghaderi M, Alfonso P (2019) Mineralogy, alteration, and sulfur isotope geochemistry of the Zehabad intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposit, NW Iran. Turkish J Earth Sci 28:882–901

    Google Scholar 

  • Sibson RH (2001) Seismogenic framework for hydrothermal transport and ore deposition. Soc Econ Geol Rev 14:25–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Snow DT (1970) The frequency and apertures of fractures in rock. Int J Rock Mechanics Mining Sci Geomechanics Abstracts 1:23–30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stearns DW (1968) Certain aspects of fractures in naturally deformed rocks. In Riecker RE (ed.) Rock mechanics seminar: Bedford. Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory, 97–118

  • Stocklin J, Eftekharnezhad J (1969) Geological map of Zanjan. Geol Survey Iran, Scale 1:250000

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanner PWG (1989) The flexural-slip mechanism. J Structural Geol 12:1084–1087

    Google Scholar 

  • Verdel C, Wernicke BP, Hassanzadeh J, Guest B (2011) A Paleogene extensional arc flare-up in Iran. Tectonics 30(3):1–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vermilye JM, Scholz CH (1998) The process zone: a microstructural view of fault growth. J Geophys Res 103(B6):12223–12237

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yasami N, Ghaderi M, Madanipour S, Taghiloub B (2017) Structural control on overprinting high-sulfidation epithermal on porphyry mineralization in the Chodarchay deposit, northwestern Iran. Ore Geol Rev 86:212–224

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was derived from the Ph.D thesis of the first author and supported by the Golestan University, Gorgan, Iran. Thanks are also given to Payame Noor University, Qazvin and Institute for Advanced Studies in Basic Sciences, Zanjan, for great assistance during the preparation of the manuscript. We also would like to express our great appreciation to editor-in-chief and reviewers for their very useful and constructive comments and suggestions for improvement of the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences, Golestan University, Shahid Beheshti Street, Gorgan, Iran

    Sadegh Afshar Najafi & Aziz Rahimi

  2. Department of Geology, Payame-Noor University, Navab Safavi Street, Qazvin, Iran

    Taghi Nabaei

  3. Department of Earth Sciences, Institute for Advanced Studies in Basic Sciences, Gava Zang, Zanjan, Iran

    Mahnaz Rezaeian

Authors
  1. Sadegh Afshar Najafi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Aziz Rahimi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Taghi Nabaei
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Mahnaz Rezaeian
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Aziz Rahimi.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they no competing interests.

Additional information

Responsible Editor: François Roure

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Najafi, S.A., Rahimi, A., Nabaei, T. et al. Role of flexural-slip folding-induced stratabound fractures in controlling Cu mineralization at the Chizeh deposit, Tarom metallogenic zone, NW Iran. Arab J Geosci 16, 94 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-022-11171-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-022-11171-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation