Abstract
A broad range of factors have been associated with the development of adolescent loneliness. In the family context, a lack of parental support and high levels of parental psychological control have systematically been linked to loneliness. On the biological level, DNA methylation (which is an epigenetic process that suppresses gene expression) is believed to play a role in the development of loneliness. Specifically, high levels of DNA methylation in genes that play an important role in the functioning of the human stress response system are believed to elevate the risk of loneliness. Moreover, DNA methylation levels in these stress-related genes can be influenced by stressful environmental factors, suggesting a potential mediating role of DNA methylation in the association between parenting behaviors and loneliness. The current 3-year longitudinal study is the first study to examine the potential bidirectional longitudinal associations between loneliness, DNA methylation in stress-related genes, and both perceived parental support and psychological control. Furthermore, we explored the potential mediating role of DNA methylation in stress-related genes in the associations between perceived parenting and loneliness. The sample comprised 622 early adolescents (55% girls, Mage T1 = 10.77 years, SDage T1 = 0.48) who were followed from Grade 5 to 7. Parental support, psychological control, and loneliness were assessed annually by adolescent self-report questionnaires and DNA methylation was determined from saliva samples. Cross-Lagged Panel Models (CLPM) revealed that higher levels of loneliness predicted lower perceived parental support and higher perceived psychological control over time, as well as higher DNA methylation in some stress-related genes, that is, the glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) and the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). In addition, higher NR3C1 methylation was predictive of lower perceived parental support and higher psychological control over time. No evidence was found for a mediating role of DNA methylation. Overall, our longitudinal findings challenge the current focus on DNA methylation and parenting behaviors as risk factors for adolescent loneliness. Instead, they suggest that the less considered direction of effects, which implies that loneliness predicts DNA methylation and aspects of parenting such as support and psychological control, should receive greater attention in future research.
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Notes
Due to missingness on some of the Wave 1 study variables, the MANOVA results are based on the data of 242 participants who dropped out over the course of the study and 265 participants who did not.
The detailed results of these analyses can be requested from the first author.
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The authors would like to thank the adolescents who participated in this study.
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Data of the Methylation IN Development (MIND) study was used. This project has been financially supported by a research grant from Internal Funds KU Leuven (C14/16/040). S.A.N. was supported by a grant from the Dutch Research Council (NWO; VI.Veni.191G.023). The funders had no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
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Y.K. conceived of the study, performed the statistical analyses, interpreted the results, and drafted the manuscript; S.A.N. participated in the study design and coordination, was involved in the interpretation of the results, helped to draft the manuscript, and critically revised the manuscript; G.B. designed the larger project and critically revised the manuscript; W.V.D.N. designed the larger project and critically revised the manuscript; K.V.L. designed the larger project and critically revised the manuscript; L.G. designed the larger project, was involved in the interpretation of the results, helped to draft the manuscript, and critically revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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Koopmans, Y., Nelemans, S.A., Bosmans, G. et al. Perceived Parental Support and Psychological Control, DNA Methylation, and Loneliness: Longitudinal Associations Across Early Adolescence. J. Youth Adolescence 52, 1995–2011 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-023-01822-6
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-023-01822-6