Abstract
Adverse experiences in early childhood may directly and indirectly impact children's development, including their preparedness to learn in their preschool and kindergarten classes. However, like many other developmental processes, these skills can be supported through positive experiences and resources in a child's environment. This work uses the 2016 National Survey of Children’s Health’s (NSCH) nationally representative preschool subsample (n = 7565) to provide an overview of the way adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) impact children’s school readiness skills. The four domains of school readiness considered are early learning skills, physical health/motor development, social-emotional skills, and self-regulation. Additionally, this work examines the ways in which family resilience can alter the relationship between ACEs and school readiness. Findings suggest that family resilience serves as a protective factor, buffering the impact of ACEs on early learning skills, social-emotional development, and self-regulation.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bellis, M., Hardcastle, K., Ford, K., Hughes, K., Ashton, K., Quigg, Z., & Butler, N. (2017). Does continuous trusted adult support in childhood impart life-course resilience against adverse childhood experiences—A retrospective study on adult health-harming behaviours and mental well-being. BMC Psychiatry, 17(1), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1260-z
Bethell, C. D., Carle, A., Hudziak, J., Gombojav, N., Powers, K., Wade, R., & Braveman, P. (2017a). Methods to assess adverse childhood experiences of children and families: Toward approaches to promote child well-being in policy and practice. Academic Pediatrics, 17(7), S51–S69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2017.04.161
Bethell, C. D., Davis, M. B., Gombojav, N., Stumbo, S., & Powers, K. (2017b). Issue brief: Adverse childhood experiences among US children. Child and Adolescent Health Measurement Initiative, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. Retrieved from https://www.cahmi.org/docs/default-source/resources/issue-brief-adverse-childhood-experiences-among-us-children-(2017).pdf
Bethell, C. D., Gombojav, N., & Whitaker, R. C. (2019). Family resilience and connection promote flourishing among US children, even amid adversity. Health Affairs, 38(5), 729–737. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2018.05425
Blodgett, C., & Lanigan, J. D. (2018). The association between adverse childhood experience (ACE) and school success in elementary school children. School Psychology Quarterly, 33(1), 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000256
Bustamante, A. S., White, L. J., & Greenfield, D. B. (2016). Approaches to learning and school readiness in Head Start: Applications to preschool science. Learning and Individual Differences, 56, 112–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.012
Child and Adolescent Health Measurement Initiative. (2017). “2016 National Survey of Children’s Health, Sampling and Survey Administration.” Data Resource Center, supported by Cooperative Agreement 1-U59-MC06980-01 from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), Maternal and Child Health Bureau (MCHB). Retrieved from www.childhealthdata.org. Revised 04/26/17
Crouch, E., Probst, J. C., Radcliff, E., Bennett, K. J., & McKinney, S. H. (2019). Prevalence of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) among US children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 92, 209–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.04.010
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8
Fisher, R. J., & Katz, J. E. (2000). Social-desirability bias and the validity of self-reported values. Psychology & Marketing, 17, 105–120. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6793(200002)17:2<105::AID-MAR3>3.0.CO;2-9
Garg, N., Anandakrishna, L., & Chandra, P. (2012). Is there an association between oral health status and school performance? A preliminary study. International Journal of Clinical Pediatric Dentistry, 5(2), 132–135. https://doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-10005-1150
Ghandour, R. M., Hirai, A. H., Moore, K. A., Robinson, L. R., Kaminski, J. W., Murphy, K., Lu, M. C., & Kogan, M. D. (2021). Healthy and ready to learn: Prevalence and correlates of school readiness among United States preschoolers. Academic Pediatrics, 21(5), 818–829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2021.02.019
Ghandour, R. M., Moore, K. A., Murphy, K., Bethell, C., Jones, J. R., Harwood, R., Buerlein, J., Kogan, M., & Lu, M. (2019). School readiness among U.S. children: Development of a pilot measure. Child Indicators Research, 12(4), 1389–1411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-018-9586-8
Halfon, N., Larson, K., Son, J., Lu, M., & Bethell, C. (2017). Income inequality and the differential effect of adverse childhood experiences in US children. Academic Pediatrics, 17(7), S70–S78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2016.11.007
Heckman, J., & Mosso, S. (2014). The economics of human development and social mobility. Annual Review of Economics, 6, 689–733. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-080213-040753
Hughes, K., Bellis, M. A., Hardcastle, K. A., Sethi, D., Butchart, A., Mikton, C., Jones, L., & Dunne, M. P. (2017). The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health, 2(8), e356–e366. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30118-4
Institute of Medicine (IOM) and National Research Council (NRC). (2014). Strategies for scaling effective family-focused preventive interventions to promote children’s cognitive, affective, and behavioral health: Workshop summary. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/18808
Jackson, D. B., Testa, A., & Vaughn, M. G. (2021). Adverse childhood experiences and school readiness among preschool-aged children. The Journal of Pediatrics, 230, 191–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.11.023
Karatekin, C., Mason, S. M., Riegelman, A., Bakker, C., Hunt, S., Gresham, B., Corcoran, F., & Barnes, A. (2022). Adverse childhood experiences: A sco** review of measures and methods. Children and Youth Services Review, 136, 106425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106425
Kline, R. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). Guilford.
Kull, M., & Coley, R. (2015). Early physical health conditions and school readiness skills in a prospective birth cohort of U.S. children. Social Science & Medicine, 142, 145–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.08.030
Leitch, L. (2017). Action steps using ACEs and trauma-informed care: A resilience model. Health and Justice. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40352-017-0050-5
Liming, K. W., & Grube, W. A. (2018). Wellbeing outcomes for children exposed to multiple adverse experiences in early childhood: A systematic review. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 35, 317–335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-018-0532-x
Lipscomb, S. T., Hatfield, B., Lewis, H., Goka-Dubose, E., & Abshire, C. (2021). Adverse childhood experiences and children’s development in early care and education programs. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 72, 101218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101218
Masten, A. S. (2015). Ordinary magic: Resilience in development. Guilford.
Masten, A. S. (2018). Resilience theory and research on children and families: Past, present, and promise. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 10(1), 12–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12255
Masten, A. S., Lucke, C. M., Nelson, K. M., & Stallworthy, I. C. (2021). Resilience in development and psychopathology: Multisystem perspectives. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 17, 521–549. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-081219-120307
Masten, A. S., & Monn, A. R. (2015). Child and family resilience: A call for integrated science, practice, and professional training. Family Relations, 64(1), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12103
Masten, A. S., Narayan, A. J., & Wright, M. O. D. (2023). Resilience processes in development: Multisystem integration emerging from four waves of research. In Handbook of resilience in children (pp. 19–46). Springer.
Masten, A. S., & Palmer, A. R. (2019). Parenting to promote resilience in children. In Handbook of parenting (pp. 156–188). Routledge.
Meunier, V., & Baker, W. (2012). Positive couple relationships: The evidence for long-lasting relationship satisfaction and happiness. In S. Roffey (Ed.), Positive relationships: Evidence based practice across the world (pp. 73–89). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2147-0_5
National Association for the Education of Young Children. (n.d.). Transforming the financing of early childhood education: A statement from the National Power to the Profession Task Force. Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/our-work/initiatives/profession/transforming-financing-early-childhood-statement
Nelson, C. A., & Gabard-Durnam, L. J. (2020). Early adversity and critical periods: Neurodevelopmental consequences of violating the expectable environment. Trends in Neurosciences, 43(3), 133–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2020.01.002
Pagani, L., & Messier, S. (2012). Links between motor skills and indicators of school readiness at kindergarten entry in urban disadvantaged children. Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology. https://doi.org/10.5539/jedp.v2n1p95
Petruccelli, K., Davis, J., & Berman, T. (2019). Adverse childhood experiences and associated health outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 97, 104127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104127
Pianta, R. C., Cox, M., & Snow, K. (2007). School readiness and the transition to kindergarten in the era of accountability. Paul H. Brookes Publishing.
Robson, D. A., Allen, M. S., & Howard, S. J. (2020). Self-regulation in childhood as a predictor of future outcomes: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 146(4), 324. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000227
Shonkoff, J., & Phillips, D. (2000). From neurons to neighborhood: The science of early childhood development. National Academy Press.
Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Kreutzer, T. (1990). The fate of early experience following developmental change: Longitudinal approaches to individual adaptation in childhood. Child Development, 61(5), 1363–1373. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130748
U.S. Census Bureau. (2018). 2016 National Survey of Children’s Health: Methodology Report. Retrieved from Census Bureau: https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/programs-surveys/nsch/tech-documentation/methodology/2016-NSCH-Methodology-Report.pdf
Valiente, C., Swanson, J., & Eisenberg, N. (2012). Linking students’ emotions and academic achievement: When and why emotions matter. Child Development Perspectives, 6(2), 129–135. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00192.x
Walker, B. H., Brown, D. C., Walker, C. S., Stubbs-Richardson, M., Oliveros, A. D., & Buttross, S. (2022). Childhood adversity associated with poorer health: Evidence from the US National Survey of Children’s Health. Child Abuse & Neglect, 134, 105871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105871
Walsh, F. (2016). Applying a family resilience framework in training, practice, and research: Mastering the art of the possible. Family Process, 55(4), 616–632. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12260
Walsh, M., Joyce, S., Maloney, T., & Vaithianathan, R. (2019). Adverse childhood experiences and school readiness outcomes: Results from the Growing Up in New Zealand study. New Zealand Medical Journal, 132(1493), 15–24.
Williams, P. G., Lerner, M. A., Sells, J., Alderman, S. L., Hashikawa, A., Mendelsohn, A., McFadden, T., Navsaria, D., Peacock, G., Scholer, S., Takagishi, J., Vanderbilt, D., DePinto, C. L., Attisha, E., Beers, N., Gibson, E., Gorski, P., Kjolhede, C., O’Leary, S. C., … Weiss-Harrison, A. (2019). School readiness. Pediatrics. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-1766
Funding
No funding was received for this research.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
I have no conflicts of interests to disclose.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendix
Appendix
“Health and Ready to Learn” domains and associating survey items.
Doman | Items |
|---|---|
Early Learning Skills | 1. How often can this child recognize the beginning sound of a word? 2. How many letters of the alphabet can this child recognize? 3. Can this child rhyme words? 4. How often can this child explain things he or she has seen or done sot that you get a very good idea of what happened? 5. How often can this child write his or her first name even if some of the letters aren’t quite right or are backwards? 6. How high can this child count? 7. How often can this child identify basic shapes, such as a triangle, circle, or square? |
Physical Health and Motor Development | 8. In general, how would you describe this child’s health? 9. How would you describe the condition of this child’s teeth? 10. When this child holds a pencil, does he or she use fingers to hold or does he or she grip it in his or her fist?*** |
Social-Emotional Development | 11. How often does this child play well with others? 12. Compared to other children his or her age, how much difficulty does this child have making or kee** friends? 13. This child bounces back quickly when things do not go his or her way 14. How often does this child show concern when others are hurt or unhappy? |
Self-Regulation | 15. How often is this child easily distracted? 16. Compared to other children his or her age, how often is this child able to sit still? 17. How often does this child keep working at something until he or she is finished? 18. When he or she is paying attention, how often can this child follow instructions to complete a simple task? |
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Webster, E.M., Hodges, H.R. & Corcoran, F. The Impact of Family Resilience in Promoting School Readiness for Children with Adverse Childhood Experiences. Early Childhood Educ J (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-024-01635-7
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-024-01635-7