Abstract
The root cause of global pollution is the reflection of usage of non-degradable plastics. The solutions and methods to mitigate the plastic pollution are in high demand. The application of green technology in polymer science from the marine resource gives stability to the ecosystem. The bio-composite films were fabricated using gelatin of fish scale, agar of seaweed and chitosan of shrimp shell waste by a solvent casting technique. The plasticity and bioactivity enhanced using glycerol and clove essential oil. The physic-chemical and mechanical properties of the film were evaluated against the range of test of thickness, tensile strength, elongation at break, puncture resistance, water vapor permeability, Attenuated Total Reflection—Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction and atomic force microscopy. The characteristics of active packaging mechanism assessed based on antimicrobial and antioxidative properties. A level of 1.5% clove essential oil ration was given desirable properties of active packaging material. The biodegradability was calculated in terms of percentage weight loss under the soil burial and water immersion test. The biodegradation process of composite film took 21 days in soil and 158 in water. Hence, the bio-composite film prepared from green technology is a promising alternative to the conventional plastic to mitigate plastic pollution.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Zhong Y, Godwin P, ** Y, **ao H (2020) Biodegradable polymers and green-based antimicrobial packaging materials: a mini-review. Adv Ind Eng Polym Res 3:27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AIEPR.2019.11.002
Gironi F, Piemonte V (2011) Bioplastics and petroleum-based plastics: strengths and weaknesses 33:1949–1959. https://doi.org/10.1080/15567030903436830
Production G plastic Global plastic production 1950–2019. https://www.statista.com/statistics/282732/global-production-of-plastics-since-1950/. Accessed 15 May 2021
Lebreton L, Andrady A (2019) Future scenarios of global plastic waste generation and disposal. Palgrave Commun 5:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-018-0212-7
Chamas A, Moon H, Zheng J et al (2020) Degradation rates of plastics in the environment. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 8:3494–3511. https://doi.org/10.1021/ACSSUSCHEMENG.9B06635
Ivar Do Sul JA, Costa MF (2014) The present and future of microplastic pollution in the marine environment. Environ Pollut 185:352–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVPOL.2013.10.036
Pradhan G, Chandra Sharma Y (2020) Studies on green synthesis of glycerol carbonate from waste cooking oil derived glycerol over an economically viable NiMgOx heterogeneous solid base catalyst. J Clean Prod 264:121258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121258
López OV, Zaritzky NE, García MA (2010) Physicochemical characterization of chemically modified corn starches related to rheological behavior, retrogradation and film forming capacity. J Food Eng 100:160–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2010.03.041
Woggum T, Sirivongpaisal P, Wittaya T (2014) Properties and characteristics of dual-modified rice starch based biodegradable films. Int J Biol Macromol 67:490–502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2014.03.029
Doh H, Dunno KD, Whiteside WS (2020) Cellulose nanocrystal effects on the biodegradability with alginate and crude seaweed extract nanocomposite films. Food Biosci 38:100795. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FBIO.2020.100795
Park J, Nam J, Yun H et al (2021) Aquatic polymer-based edible films of fish gelatin crosslinked with alginate dialdehyde having enhanced physicochemical properties. Carbohydr Polym 254:117317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117317
Venugopal V (2019) Sulfated and non-sulfated polysaccharides from seaweeds and their uses: an overview. ECronicon Nutr 2:126–141
Siracusa V, Rocculi P, Romani S, Rosa MD (2008) Biodegradable polymers for food packaging: a review. Trends Food Sci Technol 19:634–643
Chopin N, Guillory X, Weiss P et al (2014) Design polysaccharides of marine origin: chemical modifications to reach advanced versatile compounds. Curr Org Chem 18:867–895. https://doi.org/10.2174/138527281807140515152334
Debeaufort F, Quezada-Gallo JA, Voilley A (1998) Edible films and coatings: tomorrow’s packagings: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 38:299–313
Schrieber R, Gareis H (2007) Gelatine handbook: theory and industrial practice. Wiley-VCH
Huang T, Tu Z, Shangguan X et al (2019) Fish gelatin modifications: A comprehensive review. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 86:260–269
Li P, Wu G (2018) Roles of dietary glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline in collagen synthesis and animal growth. Amino Acids 50:29–38
Hoque MS, Benjakul S, Prodpran T, Songtipya P (2011) Properties of blend film based on cuttlefish (Sepia pharaonis) skin gelatin and mungbean protein isolate. Int J Biol Macromol 49:663–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2011.06.028
Derkach SR, Voron’ko NG, Kuchina YA, Kolotova DS (2020) Modified fish gelatin as an alternative to mammalian gelatin in modern food technologies. Polymers (Basel) 12:1–10. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12123051
Martínez-Sanz M, Gómez-Mascaraque LG, Ballester AR et al (2019) Production of unpurified agar-based extracts from red seaweed Gelidium sesquipedale by means of simplified extraction protocols. Algal Res 38:101420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2019.101420
Armisén R, Galatas F (2009) Agar. In: Handbook of hydrocolloids: second edition. Elsevier Inc., pp 82–107
Mostafavi FS, Zaeim D (2020) Agar-based edible films for food packaging applications: a review. Int J Biol Macromol 159:1165–1176
Rhim JW (2004) Physical and mechanical properties of water resistant sodium alginate films. LWT - Food Sci Technol 37:323–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LWT.2003.09.008
Braccini I, Pérez S (2001) Molecular basis of Ca2+-induced gelation in alginates and pectins: the egg-box model revisited. Biomacromol 2:1089–1096. https://doi.org/10.1021/BM010008G
Manivasagan P, Oh J (2016) Marine polysaccharide-based nanomaterials as a novel source of nanobiotechnological applications. Int J Biol Macromol 82:315–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJBIOMAC.2015.10.081
Jiang X, Zhang X (2017) Preparation and properties of plasticized chitosan/starch cast films using AlCl3·6H2O aqueous solution as the solvent. Polym Bull 74:1817–1830. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-016-1806-0
Srinivasa PC, Ramesh MN, Tharanathan RN (2007) Effect of plasticizers and fatty acids on mechanical and permeability characteristics of chitosan films. Food Hydrocoll 21:1113–1122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2006.08.005
Sobral PJA, Menegalli FC, Hubinger MD, Roques MA (2001) Mechanical, water vapor barrier and thermal properties of gelatin based edible films. Food Hydrocoll 15:423–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0268-005X(01)00061-3
Volery P, Besson R, Schaffer-Lequart C (2004) Characterization of commercial carrageenans by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy using single-reflection attenuated total reflection. J Agric Food Chem 52:7457–7463. https://doi.org/10.1021/JF040229O
Lee M-S, Lee S-H, Ma Y-H et al (2005) Effect of plasticizer and cross-linking agent on the physical properties of protein films. Prev Nutr Food Sci 10:88–91. https://doi.org/10.3746/jfn.2005.10.1.088
Han JH, Aristippos G (2005) Edible films and coatings. A review. In: Innovations in food packaging. Elsevier Ltd, pp 239–262
Maran JP, Sivakumar V, Sridhar R, Thirugnanasambandham K (2013) Development of model for barrier and optical properties of tapioca starch based edible films. Carbohydr Polym 92:1335–1347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.09.069
Sharma S, Singh S, Bond J, et al (2014) Evaluation of antibacterial properties of essential oils from clove and eucalyptus. 7
Chaieb K, Zmantar T, Ksouri R et al (2007) Antioxidant properties of the essential oil of Eugenia caryophyllata and its antifungal activity against a large number of clinical Candida species. Mycoses 50:403–406. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1439-0507.2007.01391.X
Abdul Khalil HPS, Tye YY, Saurabh CK, et al (2017) Biodegradable polymer films from seaweed polysaccharides: A review on cellulose as a reinforcement material. eXPRESS Polym Lett 11:244–265. https://doi.org/10.3144/EXPRESSPOLYMLETT.2017.26
Martucci JF, Ruseckaite RA (2009) Biodegradation of three-layer laminate films based on gelatin under indoor soil conditions. Polym Degrad Stab 94:1307–1313. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.POLYMDEGRADSTAB.2009.03.018
Sae-Leaw T, Benjakul S (2015) Physico-chemical properties and fishy odour of gelatin from seabass (Lates calcarifer) skin stored in ice. Food Biosci 10:59–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2015.02.002
Thiex N (2009) Evaluation of analytical methods for the determination of moisture, crude protein, crude fat, and crude fiber in distillers dried grains with solubles. J AOAC Int 92:61–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/92.1.61
Fathiraja P, Gopalrajan S, Karunanithi M et al (2021) Response surface methodology model to optimize concentration of agar, alginate and carrageenan for the improved properties of biopolymer film. Polym Bull 2021:1–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00289-021-03797-5
Jouki M, Mortazavi SA, Yazdi FT, Koocheki A (2014) Characterization of antioxidant–antibacterial quince seed mucilage films containing thyme essential oil. Carbohydr Polym 99:537–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CARBPOL.2013.08.077
Seydim AC, Sarikus G (2006) Antimicrobial activity of whey protein based edible films incorporated with oregano, rosemary and garlic essential oils. Food Res Int 39:639–644. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODRES.2006.01.013
Doh H, Dunno KD, Whiteside WS (2020) Preparation of novel seaweed nanocomposite film from brown seaweeds Laminaria japonica and Sargassum natans. Food Hydrocoll 105:105744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.105744
ASTM E96/E96M—13 Standard Test Method for Water Vapor Transmission of Materials (PDF Download). https://shop.iccsafe.org/astm-e96-e96m-13-standard-test-method-for-water-vapor-transmission-of-materials-pdf-download.html. Accessed 16 May 2021
ASTM D882 - 18 Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Thin Plastic Sheeting. https://www.astm.org/Standards/D882. Accessed 16 May 2021
Ahmad M, Benjakul S (2011) Characteristics of gelatin from the skin of unicorn leatherjacket (Aluterus monoceros) as influenced by acid pretreatment and extraction time. Food Hydrocoll 25:381–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2010.07.004
Nuthong P, Benjakul S, Prodpran T (2009) Characterization of porcine plasma protein-based films as affected by pretreatment and cross-linking agents. Int J Biol Macromol 44:143–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2008.11.006
Raghav D, Deepthi PR, Dhivyalakshmi R, et al (2017) Investigation on the growth and characterization of pure and oregano extract doped kip single crystals. SJ Impact Factor 6 887. https://doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2017.11139
Van der Meeren L, Verduijn J, Krysko D V., Skirtach AG (2020) AFM analysis enables differentiation between apoptosis, necroptosis, and ferroptosis in murine cancer cells. iScience 23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2020.101816
Chiellini E, Cinelli P, Corti A, Kenawy ER (2001) Composite films based on waste gelatin: thermal–mechanical properties and biodegradation testing. Polym Degrad Stab 73:549–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141-3910(01)00132-X
Al-Hashimi AG, Ammar AB, Lakshmanan G, et al (2020) Development of a millet starch edible film containing clove essential oil. Foods 2020, Vol 9, Page 184 9:184. https://doi.org/10.3390/FOODS9020184
Talón E, Vargas M, Chiralt A, González-Martínez C (2019) Antioxidant starch-based films with encapsulated eugenol. Application to sunflower oil preservation. LWT 113:108290. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LWT.2019.108290
Heredia-Guerrero JA, Ceseracciu L, Guzman-Puyol S et al (2018) Antimicrobial, antioxidant, and waterproof RTV silicone-ethyl cellulose composites containing clove essential oil. Carbohydr Polym 192:150–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CARBPOL.2018.03.050
Alma HM, Ertas M, Nitz S, Kollmannsberger H (2007) Research on essential oil content and chemical composition of Turkish Clove (Syzygium aromaticum L.). BioResources 2:265–269
Alireza D, Ramin K, Hedayat H et al (2014) Physical, antioxidant and antimicrobial characteristics of carboxymethyl cellulose edible film cooperated with clove essential oil. Zahedan J Res Med Sci J 16:34–42
Lin KH, Yeh SY, Lin MY et al (2007) Major chemotypes and antioxidative activity of the leaf essential oils of Cinnamomum osmophloeum Kaneh. From a clonal orchard. Food Chem 105:133–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODCHEM.2007.03.051
Weerakkody NS, Caffin N, Turner MS, Dykes GA (2010) In vitro antimicrobial activity of less-utilized spice and herb extracts against selected food-borne bacteria. Food Control 21:1408–1414. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODCONT.2010.04.014
Prabuseenivasan S, Jayakumar M, Ignacimuthu S (2006) In vitro antibacterial activity of some plant essential oils. BMC Complement Altern Med 6:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-6-39/COMMENTS
Nuñez L, Aquino ’ (2012) Microbicide activity of clove essential oil (Eugenia Caryophyllata). Braz J Microbiol 1255–1260
Zivanovic S, Chi S, Draughon AF (2005) Antimicrobial activity of chitosan films enriched with essential oils. J Food Sci 70:M45–M51. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1365-2621.2005.TB09045.X
Galus S, Lenart A (2013) Development and characterization of composite edible films based on sodium alginate and pectin. J Food Eng 115:459–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2012.03.006
García MA, Pinotti A, Martino MN, Zaritzky NE (2009) Characterization of starch and composite edible films and coatings. In: Edible films and coatings for food applications. Springer, New York, pp 169–209
Mulyani TS, Egha Rodhu Hansyah Jurusan Teknologi Pangan -FTI -UPN dan, Rungkut Madya -Surabaya J (2010) Physical and mechanical properties of edible film from Porang (Amorphopallus oncophyllus) flour and carboxymethylcellulose. J Teknol Pertan 11:196–201
Arham R, Mulyati MT, Metusalach M, Salengke S (2016) Physical and mechanical properties of agar based edible film with glycerol plasticizer. Int Food Res J 23:1669–1675
Nordin N, Othman SH, Rashid SA, Basha RK (2020) Effects of glycerol and thymol on physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of corn starch films. Food Hydrocoll 106:105884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.105884
Shaikh M, Haider S, Ali TM, Hasnain A (2019) Physical, thermal, mechanical and barrier properties of pearl millet starch films as affected by levels of acetylation and hydroxypropylation. Int J Biol Macromol 124:209–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.11.135
Benavides S, Villalobos-Carvajal R, Reyes JE (2012) Physical, mechanical and antibacterial properties of alginate film: Effect of the crosslinking degree and oregano essential oil concentration. J Food Eng 110:232–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JFOODENG.2011.05.023
Rivero S, García MA, Pinotti A (2010) Correlations between structural, barrier, thermal and mechanical properties of plasticized gelatin films. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 11:369–375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2009.07.005
Sifuentes-Nieves I, Rendón-Villalobos R, Jiménez-Aparicio A, et al (2015) Physical, physicochemical, mechanical, and structural characterization of films based on gelatin/glycerol and carbon nanotubes. Int J Polym Sci https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/763931
Bastarrachea L, Dhawan S, Sablani SS (2011) Engineering properties of polymeric-based antimicrobial films for food packaging. Food Eng Rev 3:79–93
Rioux LE, Turgeon SL, Beaulieu M (2007) Rheological characterisation of polysaccharides extracted from brown seaweeds. J Sci Food Agric 87:1630–1638. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2829
Saedi S, Shokri M, Rhim JW (2020) Preparation of carrageenan-based nanocomposite films incorporated with functionalized halloysite using AgNP and sodium dodecyl sulfate. Food Hydrocoll 106:105934. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.105934
Srinivasa PC, Ravi R, Tharanathan RN (2007) Effect of storage conditions on the tensile properties of eco-friendly chitosan films by response surface methodology. J Food Eng 80:184–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.05.007
Bajić M, Oberlintner A, Kõrge K et al (2020) Formulation of active food packaging by design: Linking composition of the film-forming solution to properties of the chitosan-based film by response surface methodology (RSM) modelling. Int J Biol Macromol 160:971–978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.05.186
Hidayati S, Zulferiyenni Maulidia U et al (2021) Effect of glycerol concentration and carboxy methyl cellulose on biodegradable film characteristics of seaweed waste. Heliyon 7:e07799. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.HELIYON.2021.E07799
Luzi F, Torre L, Kenny JM, Puglia D (2019) Bio- and fossil-based polymeric blends and nanocomposites for packaging: structure–property relationship. Mater 12:471. https://doi.org/10.3390/MA12030471
McHugh TH, Krochta JM (1994) Water vapor permeability properties of edible whey protein-lipid emulsion films. J Am Oil Chem Soc 71:307–312. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02638058
Jiang Y, Lan W, Sameen DE et al (2020) Preparation and characterization of grass carp collagen-chitosan-lemon essential oil composite films for application as food packaging. Int J Biol Macromol 160:340–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.05.202
Salmieri S, Lacroix M (2006) Physicochemical properties of alginate/polycaprolactone-based films containing essential oils. J Agric Food Chem 54:10205–10214. https://doi.org/10.1021/JF062127Z
Kun WW, Ye R et al (2017) Mechanical and barrier properties of maize starch–gelatin composite films: effects of amylose content. J Sci Food Agric 97:3613–3622. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.8220
Pouralkhas M, Kordjazi M, Ojagh SM, Farsani OA (2023) Physicochemical and functional characterization of gelatin edible film incorporated with fucoidan isolated from Sargassum tenerrimum. Food Sci Nutr 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.3402
Pawlak A, Mucha M (2003) Thermogravimetric and FTIR studies of chitosan blends. Thermochim Acta 396:153–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-6031(02)00523-3
Nunthanid J, Puttipipatkhachorn S, Yamamoto K, Peck GE (2001) Physical properties and molecular behavior of chitosan films. 27:143–157. https://doi.org/10.1081/DDC-100000481
El-Hefian EA, Nasef MM, Yahaya AH (2012) Preparation and characterization of chitosan/agar blended films: Part 1. Chemical structure and morphology. E-Journal Chem 9:1431–1439. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/781206
Liu L, Cai R, Wang Y et al (2018) Polydopamine-assisted silver nanoparticle self-assembly on sericin/agar film for potential wound dressing application. Int J Mol Sci 19:2875. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19102875
Cui L, Gao S, Song X et al (2018) Preparation and characterization of chitosan membranes. RSC Adv 8:28433–28439. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ra05526b
Rhim JW, Wang LF (2014) Preparation and characterization of carrageenan-based nanocomposite films reinforced with clay mineral and silver nanoparticles. Appl Clay Sci 97–98:174–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2014.05.025
Zhang B, Liu Y, Wang H, et al (2021) Characterization of seaweed polysaccharide-based bilayer films containing essential oils with antibacterial activity. Lwt 150:111961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111961
Yang H, Wang Y, Lai S et al (2007) Application of atomic force microscopy as a nanotechnology tool in food science. J Food Sci 72:R65–R75
Kavoosi G, Derakhshan M, Salehi M, Rahmati L (2018) Microencapsulation of zataria essential oil in agar, alginate and carrageenan. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 45:418–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IFSET.2017.12.010
Liakos I, Rizzello L, Scurr DJ et al (2014) All-natural composite wound dressing films of essential oils encapsulated in sodium alginate with antimicrobial properties. Int J Pharm 463:137–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJPHARM.2013.10.046
Narancic T, O’Connor KE (2019) Plastic waste as a global challenge: Are biodegradable plastics the answer to the plastic waste problem? Microbiol (UK) 165:129–137. https://doi.org/10.1099/MIC.0.000749/CITE/REFWORKS
Dieckow J, Bayer C, Conceição PC et al (2009) Land use, tillage, texture and organic matter stock and composition in tropical and subtropical Brazilian soils. Eur J Soil Sci 60:240–249. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1365-2389.2008.01101.X
Alvarez VA, Ruseckaite RA, Vázquez A (2006) Degradation of sisal fibre/Mater Bi-Y biocomposites buried in soil. Polym Degrad Stab 91:3156–3162. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.POLYMDEGRADSTAB.2006.07.011
Tihan TG, Ionita MD, Popescu RG, Iordachescu D (2009) Effect of hydrophilic–hydrophobic balance on biocompatibility of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)–hydroxyapatite (HA) composites. Mater Chem Phys 118:265–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATCHEMPHYS.2009.03.019
Gu JD (2003) Microbiological deterioration and degradation of synthetic polymeric materials: recent research advances. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 52:69–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0964-8305(02)00177-4
Kale G, Kijchavengkul T, Auras R et al (2007) Compostability of bioplastic packaging materials: an overview. Macromol Biosci 7:255–277. https://doi.org/10.1002/MABI.200600168
Ferreira FV, Dufresne A, Pinheiro IF et al (2018) How do cellulose nanocrystals affect the overall properties of biodegradable polymer nanocomposites: a comprehensive review. Eur Polym J 108:274–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EURPOLYMJ.2018.08.045
Acknowledgements
The authors express their sincere thanks to the Dean, Fisheries College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu, India, for permitting to carry out experiments in college laboratories. The authors express their sincere thanks to Director, ICAR- CIFT, Cochin, India, for support of analyzing optical parameters. The authors also thank the Principal, VOC College, Thoothukudi, India, for providing facilities of ATR-FTIR and AFM analysis. The authors also acknowledge the support from the Director, Bharat Ratna Prof.CNR Rao Research Centre, Coimbatore, India, for the analysis of XRD. The authors express their sincere thanks to the Prince of Songkla University and the National Research Council of Thailand for TGA analysis.
Funding
No specific grant was given to this research by funding organizations in the public, private, or not-for-profit sectors.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical approval
This manuscript does not contain any kind of studies with human or animal subjects.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Fathiraja, P., Gopalrajan, S., Kumar, K. et al. Augmentation of bioactivity with addition of clove essential oil into fish scale gelatin, agar and chitosan composite film and biodegradable features. Polym. Bull. 81, 5329–5357 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-023-04961-9
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-023-04961-9