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Global geographical and historical overview of cyanotoxin distribution and cyanobacterial poisonings

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Abstract

Cyanobacteria are photoautotrophic organisms which occur in aquatic and terrestrial environments. They have the potential to produce toxins which pose a threat to human and animal health. This review covers the global distribution of the common cyanotoxins and related poisoning cases. A total of 468 selected articles on toxic cyanobacteria, dating from the earliest records until 2018, were reviewed. Most of the articles were published after 2000 (72%; 337 out of 468), which is consistent with the recent growth in interest in the analysis, toxinology and ecotoxicology of cyanotoxins. Animal and/or human poisoning cases were described in more than a third of the overall publications (38%; 177 out of 468). The reviewed publications showed that there were 1118 recorded identifications of major cyanotoxins in 869 freshwater ecosystems from 66 countries throughout the world. Microcystins were the most often recorded cyanotoxins worldwide (63%; 699 out of 1118), followed by cylindrospermopsin (10%; 107 out of 1118), anatoxins (9%; 100 out of 1118), and saxitoxins (8%; 93 out of 1118). Nodularins were the most rarely recorded cyanotoxins (2%; 19 out of 1118); however, there were also reports where cyanotoxins were not analysed or specified (9%; 100 out of 1118). The most commonly found toxic cyanobacterial genera were Microcystis spp. (669 reports), Anabaena spp. (397 reports), Aphanizomenon spp. (100 reports), Planktothrix spp. (98 reports), and Oscillatoria spp. (75 reports). Furthermore, there were 183 recorded cyanotoxin poisonings of humans and/or animals. Out of all toxic cyanobacterial blooms reviewed in this paper, the highest percentage of associated poisonings was found in North and Central America (39%; 69 cases out of 179), then Europe (20%; 35 out of 179), Australia including New Zealand (15%; 27 out of 179), and Africa (11%; 20 out of 179), while the lowest percentage was related to Asia (8%; 14 cases out of 179) and South America (8%; 14 cases out of 179). Events where only animals were known to have been affected were 63% (114 out of 182), whereas 32% (58 out of 182) of the investigated events involved only humans. A historical overview of human and animal poisoning episodes associated with cyanobacterial blooms is presented. Further, geographical data on the occurrence of cyanotoxins and related poisonings based on the available literature are shown. Some countries (mainly European) have done very intensive research on the occurrence of toxic cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins, and reported related ecotoxicological observations, while in some countries the lack of data is apparent. The true global extent of cyanotoxins and associated poisonings is likely to be greater than found in the available literature, and it can be assumed that ecotoxicological and hygienic problems caused by toxic cyanobacteria may occur in more environments.

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Abbreviations

ATX-a:

Anatoxin-a

ATX-a(S):

Anatoxin-a(S)

BMAA:

β-N-Methylamino-l-alanine

CYN:

Cylindrospermopsin

HomoATXa:

Homoanatoxin-a

MC:

Microcystin

MC-LR:

Microcystin-LR

NOD:

Nodularin

NSTX:

Neosaxitoxin

PLC:

Primary liver cancer

STX:

Saxitoxin

LC–MS/MS:

Liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometric detection methods

LPS:

Lipopolysaccharides

WHO:

World Health Organization

N/A:

Toxic cyanobacterial metabolites not analysed

ND:

Not determined

N/S:

Not stated

UR:

Unknown reasons (group of cyanotoxins was not specified)

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the funding of the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Serbian Government (project number: 176020).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000, Novi Sad, Serbia

    Zorica Svirčev, Dijana Lalić, Nada Tokodi, Damjana Drobac Backović & Jussi Meriluoto

  2. Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland

    Zorica Svirčev & Jussi Meriluoto

  3. UMR ECOBIO 6553, CNRS Université de Rennes 1, Campus de Beaulieu, Rennes, France

    Gorenka Bojadžija Savić

  4. State Key Laboratory of Eco-hydraulics in Northwest Arid Region, Faculty of Water Resources and Hydroelectric Engineering, **’an University of Technology, **’an, 710048, China

    Liang Chen

  5. Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430072, China

    Liang Chen

  6. School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 5EH, Scotland, UK

    Geoffrey A. Codd

  7. Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK

    Geoffrey A. Codd

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  1. Zorica Svirčev
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  2. Dijana Lalić
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Correspondence to Dijana Lalić.

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Svirčev, Z., Lalić, D., Bojadžija Savić, G. et al. Global geographical and historical overview of cyanotoxin distribution and cyanobacterial poisonings. Arch Toxicol 93, 2429–2481 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-019-02524-4

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